Environmental policy in Kentucky

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Environmental policy in Kentucky
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Environmental policy in other states
Endangered species in Kentucky


Environmental policy aims to conserve natural resources by balancing environmental protection with economic growth, property rights, public health, and energy production. This is done mainly through laws and regulation passed at all governmental levels and influenced by many stakeholders with different agendas.

HIGHLIGHTS
  • As of April 2016, Kentucky joined federal lawsuits challenging the EPA's Clean Power Plan, water rule and mercury standards.
  • As of January 2016, there were 39 endangered and threatened species in Kentucky listed under the federal Endangered Species Act.
  • Budget

    Environmental budget

    Kentucky spent $226.5 million on its Environmental Protection and Natural Resources departments in fiscal year 2015.

    Environmental and natural resources spending by state
    State Divisions/Departments Fiscal year 2015 Fiscal year 2014 Fiscal year 2013 Fiscal year 2012 Fiscal year 2011
    Kentucky Environmental Protection; Natural Resources $226,525,700 $225,401,400 $203,195,053 $212,271,475 $197,288,384
    Tennessee Environment and Conservation N/A $330,123,900 $298,883,200 $295,337,600 $358,265,300
    Virginia Natural Resources $396,734,638 $368,810,035 $481,441,541 $369,447,482 $400,402,974
    West Virginia Environmental Protection $195,072,839 $201,906,476 $173,414,325 $178,298,652 N/A
    Sources: Kentucky State Budget Office
    Tennessee Department of Finance and Administration
    Virginia Department of Planning and Budget
    West Virginia State Budget Office
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    Air

    Clean Air Act

    See also: Implementation of the Clean Air Act

    The Clean Air Act is a federal law aimed at maintaining air quality and reducing air pollution. The law requires states and private industries to meet national air pollution standards. Each state must implement an EPA-approved plan to reduce air pollutants from industrial facilities such as chemical plants and utilities. Over 42,000 facilities nationwide were regulated under the Clean Air Act in 2015.[1][2][3]

    Kentucky had 637 facilities regulated under the Clean Air Act in 2014.

    State-regulated facilities under the Clean Air Act
    State Facilities (2014)
    Kentucky 637
    Tennessee 1,038
    Virginia 1,851
    West Virginia 255
    United States total 42,201
    Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Power Plants Likely Covered by the Toxics Rule"
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    Mercury and air toxics standards

    See also: Mercury and air toxics standards

    Federal mercury and air toxics standards target mercury and other hazardous pollutants from 580 coal and oil-fired power plants nationwide. The standards are meant to reduce human exposure to mercury emissions.[4][5]

    As of April 2016, Kentucky was one of 21 states that challenged the mercury standards in federal court. In June 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in a 5-4 decision that the EPA did not properly consider the regulation's costs and mandated the agency perform a cost-benefit analysis. The ruling did not strike down the mercury standards but required the EPA to conduct a more extensive cost-benefit analysis by April 2016. The EPA issued its cost-benefit analysis on April 18, 2016.[6][7][8][9]

    As of 2015, Kentucky had 20 power plants subject to the mercury standards.[10]

    Power plants affected mercury and air toxics standards (MATS) by state
    State Number of power plants affected
    Kentucky 20
    Tennessee 7
    Virginia 16
    West Virginia 16
    United States total 585
    Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Power Plants Likely Covered by the Toxics Rule"
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    Ozone standards

    See also: Ground-level ozone standards

    Federal ozone standards establish the acceptable amount of ground level ozone, commonly known as smog, which is formed when nitrogen oxide combines with other organic chemicals in the atmosphere. Automobiles, power plants, factories and manufacturing centers emit the nitrogen oxide necessary for ozone formation. In high concentrations, ozone is harmful to human health.[11][12]

    In 2015, the EPA lowered the acceptable amount of ground-level ozone (smog) in the air. The standards will go into effect in 2025. States would have between the years 2020 and 2037 to create and establish a plan to meet the standards, depending how much ozone forms in certain areas of a state.[13][14]

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    Clean Power Plan

    See also: Clean Power Plan and climate change

    In 2015, the EPA finalized a regulatory action aimed at mitigating potentially human-caused climate change known as the Clean Power Plan. The plan's goal is to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from coal- and oil-fired power plants (fossil fuel-fired) and natural gas-fired power plants by 32 percent from 2005 levels by 2030. Each state would have to meet goals based on the number of fossil fuel- and natural gas-fired plants in the state.[15][16][17]

    As of February 2017, Kentucky was one of the 27 states that challenged the plan in court while 18 states supported the plan. As of February 2017, 45 states took a stance on the Clean Power Plan.[18][19]

    In February 2016, by a 5-4 vote, the U.S. Supreme Court temporarily delayed the plan's implementation pending a ruling by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. As of March 30, 2017, the circuit court had not issued a ruling.[19][20]

    On March 28, 2017, President Donald Trump (R) issued an executive order directing the EPA to consider formally repealing the Clean Power Plan.[21]


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    Carbon dioxide reductions under the Clean Power Plan

    Kentucky power plants would have to reduce their CO2 emissions by 40.6 percent by the year 2030 if the plan were fully implemented.[22]

    CO2 reduction goals by state, in pounds per megawatt hours (lbs/MWh)
    State 2012 baseline (lbs/MWh) Interim goal, 2022-2029 (lbs/MWh) Final goal, 2030 and beyond (lbs/MWh) Percentage reduction, 2012-2030
    Kentucky 2,166 1,509 1,286 -40.63%
    Tennessee 2,015 1,411 1,211 -39.9%
    Virginia 1,477 1,047 934 -36.76%
    West Virginia 2,064 1,534 1,305 -36.77%
    *Alaska and Hawaii are exempt from reduction goals.
    **Vermont has no reduction goals because the state has no power plants.
    Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Clean Power Plan State Goal Visualizer"
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    Carbon dioxide emissions by energy source

    In 2013, coal accounted for 63 percent of Kentucky's emissions—86.4 million metric tons—followed by petroleum and natural gas at 27.8 percent and 9.1 percent, respectively.

    Energy-related CO2 emissions by source, 2013 (in million metric tons)
    State Coal Petroleum Natural gas Total
    Total Percentage Total Percentage Total Percentage
    Kentucky 86.4 63% 38.1 27.8% 12.5 9.1% 137
    Tennessee 37.7 39.% 43.8 45.3% 15.2 15.7% 96.7
    Virginia 27.3 26.6% 52.6 51.1% 23 22.3% 103
    West Virginia 72.8 78.0% 12.5 13.4% 8.0 8.6% 93.3
    United States total 1,701.7 32.2% 2,167.9 41.1% 1,409.0 26.7% 5,278.6
    Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, "State Carbon Dioxide Emissions"
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    Carbon dioxide emissions by sector

    More than 62 percent of Kentucky's emissions came from the electric power sector followed by 21.1 percent from the transportation sector in 2013.

    CO2 emissions by sector, 2013
    State Commercial Electric power Residential Industrial Transportation
    Kentucky 1.7% 62.8% 2.5% 11.8% 21.1%
    Tennessee 3.6% 34.7% 4.4% 17.1% 40.2%
    Virginia 4.8% 30.% 6.3% 12.5% 46.4%
    West Virginia 1.7% 73.7% 2.0% 11.1% 11.5%
    United States total 4.2% 38.3% 6.3% 18.2% 33.0%
    Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, "State Carbon Dioxide Emissions"
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    Land

    Federal land policy

    See also: Federal land policy

    Federal land policy involves the conservation and management of natural resources on land owned by the federal government. Most federal land policies focus on conservation, recreation, oil and natural gas extraction, wildlife and forest management, and grazing.

    As of 2013, the federal government owned around 640 million total acres of land (about 28 percent) of the 2.27 billion acres of land in the United States. Four federal agencies oversee between 608 million to 610 million acres of federal land—around 26 percent of all land in the United States. Depending on the agency responsible for them, these lands may be used for conservation, recreation, wildlife protection, grazing, energy production and other purposes.[23]

    Around 52 percent of federally owned acres are in 12 Western states—including Alaska, 61 percent of which is federally owned. In contrast, the federal government owns 4 percent of the land in the other 38 states.[23]

    Federal land ownership

    As of 2013, the federal government owned 4.3 percent of all land in Kentucky.

    Federal land ownership by state, 2013
    State Total federal land (in acres) Total land (in acres) Percentage of land owned by the federal government
    Kentucky 1,094,036 25,512,320 4.3%
    Tennessee 1,273,175 26,727,680 4.8%
    Virginia 2,514,596 25,496,320 9.9%
    West Virginia 1,133,587 15,410,560 7.4%
    United States total 623,313,931 2,271,343,360 27.4%
    Source: Congressional Research Service, "Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data"
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    The map below details changes to federal land ownership between 1990 and 2013. The amount of federal land in Kentucky increased by 127,553 acres—an increase of 11.7 percent.

    Land management by agency

    The table below shows the number of acres managed by federal agency in 2013.

    Federal land ownership by state and agency, 2013
    State BLM Forest Service FWS NPS Defense
    Acres % Acres % Acres % Acres % Acres %
    Kentucky 0.0 0% 819,439 74.9% 11,695 1.07% 94,678 8.65% 168,223 15.38%
    Tennessee 0.0 0% 718,674 56.45% 54,093 4.25% 358,797 28.18% 141,611 11.12%
    Virginia 805 0.03% 1,662,875 66.13% 130,188 5.18% 304,825 12.12% 415,903 16.54%
    West Virginia 0.0 0% 1,045,855 92.26% 19,796 1.75% 65,071 5.74% 2,866 0.25%
    U.S. total 247,252,228 39.67% 192,932,426 30.95% 89,080,785 14.29% 79,648,788 12.78% 14,399,704 2.31%
    Source: Congressional Research Service, "Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data"
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    National parks

    As of December 2015, the U.S. National Park Service oversaw 409 sites within the National Park System and assists in managing national historic areas, wild and scenic rivers, historic landmarks, and national trails. As of December 2015, the National Park System contained more than 84 million acres, including national parks, historical parks and sites, national monuments, battlefields and military parks, recreation areas, seashores, and parkways. Around 280 million visitors attended sites in the National Park System in 2014. The National Park Service employed around 20,000 permanent, temporary and seasonal employees as of July 2015.[24]

    Kentucky had five National Park Service sites as of January 2016. A complete list of Park Service sites in Kentucky can be found here.

    National Park Service sites by state
    State National Park Service sites
    Kentucky 5
    Tennessee 11
    Virginia 27
    West Virginia 7
    United States total* 492
    *50 state total only; U.S. territories not included
    Source: U.S. National Park Service, "National Parks Listed by State"
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    Park visits and visitor spending

    In 2014, Kentucky parks had 1.8 million total visits, which generated $114.7 million in visitor spending.

    National Park Service visits and visitor spending by state
    State Total recreation visits Total visitor spending (in millions)
    2014 2013 2012 2014 2013 2012
    Kentucky 1,828,192 1,604,722 1,717,853 $114.7 $99.2 $103.3
    Tennessee 8,470,460 8,090,143 8,414,094 $571.1 $530.8 $541.0
    Virginia 22,870,532 22,024,384 23,398,517 $929.3 $870.9 $926.3
    West Virginia 1,541,807 1,499,114 1,543,425 $65.8 $63. $63.4
    United States total* 252,859,729 237,224,421 246,302,115 $14,841.9 $13,800.2 $13,953.8
    *50 state total only; U.S. territories not included
    Source: U.S. National Park Service, "National Park Service Visitor Use Statistics"

    Payments in lieu of taxes

    The U.S. Department of the Interior pays local governments each year to offset what they lose in property taxes due to non-taxable federal land within their borders, commonly known as payments in lieu of taxes (PILT). PILT payments go toward fire and police departments, public schools, road construction, and other local services. PILT amounts are based on population and the amount of federal land in a county. From 1977 (when PILT payments began) to 2015, the Interior Department paid out around $7.1 billion to states, territories and Washington, D.C. PILT payments can be used for any governmental purpose.[25][26]

    Kentucky received $2.1 million in PILT payments in 2015.

    Payments in lieu of taxes by state, 2013-2015
    State 2015 payment 2014 payment 2013 payment
    Kentucky $2,146,228 $2,182,678 $1,949,675
    Tennessee $2,140,169 $2,121,952 $1,877,039
    Virginia $3,740,282 $3,614,508 $3,263,807
    West Virginia $3,082,021 $3,108,857 $2,892,560
    United States total $439,084,000 $436,904,919 $401,756,129
    Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, "Payments in Lieu of Taxes by State"
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    Oil and natural gas activity

    See also: Oil and natural gas extraction on federal land

    The federal government leases its land to private individuals and companies for energy development, including drilling for crude oil and natural gas, solar energy, and geothermal energy. Around 166 million acres of federal land can be leased for energy development. Oil and natural gas drilling on federal lands in the United States is primarily overseen by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management.[23][27]

    Production on federal land

    Kentucky produced 11.1 thousand barrels of crude oil and around 78.88 million cubic feet of natural gas in 2014.

    Oil and natural gas production on federal land, 2014
    State Oil production (in thousands of barrels) Natural gas production (in million cubic feet)
    Kentucky 11.1 78.88
    Tennessee 0.0 0.0
    Virginia 0.0 127.34
    West Virginia 0.0 152.92
    United States total 148,802.95 2,499,845.86
    Source: Office of Natural Resource Revenue, "Statistical Information"
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    Land with production

    Private oil and natural gas companies apply for leases from the BLM to produce energy on federal land. The BLM makes leasing decisions based on a land use plan submitted by the company and the potential environmental impact of the production. If a lease is approved, the company must submit information to the BLM about how it will conduct its drilling and production. The BLM also inspects a company’s operations throughout the production.[28]

    Kentucky had 54 producing leases (the number of leases that include a well capable of producing oil or gas) on 33,240 producing acres (acres where oil or gas is produced) of federal land in 2015.

    Oil and gas producing leases and acres on federal land by state, 2013-2015
    State FY 2015 FY 2014 FY 2013
    Producing leases Producing acres Producing leases Producing acres Producing leases Producing acres
    Kentucky 54 33,240 54 32,916 55 33,240
    Tennessee 2 736 2 736 2 736
    Virginia 16 14,491 16 14,491 16 14,491
    West Virginia 153 55,810 153 55,810 153 55,810
    United States total 23,770 12,617,743 23,657 12,690,806 23,507 12,617,743
    Source: U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Oil and Gas Statistics"
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    Water

    Clean Water Act

    See also: Implementation of the Clean Water Act

    The Clean Water Act is a federal law regulating pollutants discharged into all waters of the United States, including lakes, rivers, streams, and wetlands. The federal government approves water quality and technology standards for major sources of water pollution, such as chemical plants, steel manufacturers, municipal facilities, and others. Each state must establish water quality standards for all bodies of water within its boundaries.[29]

    Under the Clean Water Act, it is unlawful to discharge any pollutant from any source into navigable waters without a federal permit. The permit specifies what limitations or conditions apply to a facility before the facility may discharge any pollutants. Federal permits may contain facility-specific requirements and limitations depending on the water source.[30]

    In 2015, Kentucky had 11,107 facilities with Clean Water Act permits allowing facilities to discharge their pollutants.[31]

    Clean Water Act permits by state
    State Permits (2015)
    Kentucky 11,107
    Tennessee 2,293
    Virginia 1,102
    West Virginia 5,701
    United States total 208,962
    Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Water Activity Dashboard"
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    Public water systems

    Kentucky had 445 public water systems in 2015.[32]

    Public drinking water systems by state, 2015
    State Public water systems (2015)
    Kentucky 445
    Tennessee 872
    Virginia 2,744
    West Virginia 965
    United States total 149,294
    Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Drinking Water Activity Dashboard"

    Waters of the United States

    See also: Waters of the United States

    In 2015, the EPA finalized the Waters of the United States rule, which is aimed at clarifying the bodies of water that are under federal jurisdiction. The EPA and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers would require a federal permit for proposed projects that may involve a discharge of a pollutant into waters covered under the rule.[33][34][35][36][37][38][39]

    As of April 2016, Kentucky was one of the 31 states that challenged the rule's legality in federal court. On October 9, 2015, the United States Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit temporarily blocked the rule nationwide to deliberate whether the rule was permissible under federal law.[40][41][42][43][44]

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    Waste

    Superfund sites

    See also: Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act

    Superfund is a federal program that addresses contaminated waste sites and their return to practical use. Superfund sites include oil refineries, smelting facilities, mines and other industrial areas. The federal government can compel the private entities responsible for a waste site to clean the site or face penalties. If the federal government cleans a waste site, it can compel the responsible company to reimburse the government for cleanup costs. Because Superfund sites are added and removed from a prioritized list on a regular basis, the total number of Superfund sites since the program's inception in 1980 is unknown.[45][46][47]

    The costs of the Superfund program vary. According to the U.S. Government Accountability Office, the program received an average of $1.2 billion each year between 1981 and 2009.[48][49][50]

    As of January 2016, Kentucky had 13 Superfund sites.[51]

    Superfund sites by state (January 2016)
    State Superfund sites
    Kentucky 13
    Tennessee 17
    Virginia 31
    West Virginia 9
    United States total 1,303
    Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Priorities List (NPL) sites by state"
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    Hazardous wastes sites

    The federal Resource Conservation and Recovery Act covers hazardous wastes, including their generation, treatment, storage and disposal. States may regulate hazardous wastes rather than the federal government. The EPA is responsible for all hazardous waste requirements if no state program exists. Hazardous waste regulations cover waste generators, transporters, treatment centers, storage and disposal facilities.[52]

    Kentucky had 3,799 regulated waste facilities in 2015.[53]

    Federally regulated waste facilities by state, 2015
    State Facilities (2015)
    Kentucky 3,799
    Tennessee 3,817
    Virginia 9,178
    West Virginia 3,878
    United States total 431,914
    Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Hazardous Waste Activity Dashboard"
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    Endangered species

    Endangered Species Act

    See also: Endangered species in Kentucky

    The Endangered Species Act is a federal law that mandates the listing and conservation of endangered and threatened species. The legislation is meant to prevent the extinction of vulnerable species throughout the United States and to recover a species' population to the point where listing the species as endangered or threatened is no longer necessary. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is responsible for the law's implementation.[12][54]

    Federally listed animal species in Kentucky

    There were 39 endangered and threatened species believed to or known to occur in Kentucky as of January 2016.[55]

    The table below lists the 29 endangered and threatened animal species in the state. When an animal species has the word "Entire" after its name, that species will be found all throughout the state.

    Click the [show] button to see the names of all federally protected animal species.

    Federally listed plant species in Kentucky

    The table below lists the 10 endangered and threatened plant species in the state.[56]

    Click the [show] button to see the names of all federally protected plant species.

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    News

    Clean Power Plan

    The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms Kentucky Clean Power Plan. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

    Waters of the United States

    The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms Kentucky Waters of the United States. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

    Clean Air Act

    The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms Kentucky Clean Air Act. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

    Clean Water Act

    The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms Kentucky Clean Water Act. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

    Endangered species

    The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms Kentucky Endangered Species Act. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

    Federal land

    The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms Kentucky federal land. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

    Superfund

    The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms Kentucky Superfund. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

    Climate change

    The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms Kentucky climate change. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

    Drinking water

    The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms Kentucky drinking water. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

    Governance

    Ballot measures

    Voting on the Environment
    Environment.jpg
    Ballot Measures
    By state
    By year
    Not on ballot


    Below is a list of ballot measures relating to environmental issues in Kentucky.

    Natural resources

    Ballotpedia staff have tracked no ballot measures relating to natural resources in Kentucky

    Environment

    Ballotpedia staff have tracked no ballot measures relating to the environment in Kentucky

    Water

    Ballotpedia staff have tracked no ballot measures relating to water in Kentucky

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    Agencies and organizations

    • The Kentucky House has a standing committee on Natural Resources and Environment, and the Kentucky Senate has a standing committee on Natural Resources and Energy.
    • The Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection is the state's environmental enforcement agency. The department is responsible for managing environmental programs throughout the state in the areas of air and water quality, waste management and compliance. The department's mission is "to protect and enhance Kentucky's environment."[57]
    • The Kentucky Department of Natural Resources is responsible for conserving and sustaining the state's natural resources. The department engages in educational efforts and helps fund conservation and sustainability programs for landowners, industries and communities. The department is also responsible for inspecting timber production and mining operations.[58]
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    Recent legislation

    The following is a list of recent environmental bills that have been introduced in or passed by the Kentucky state legislature. To learn more about these bills, click the bill title. This information is provided by BillTrack50 and LegiScan.

    Note: Due to the nature of the sorting process used to generate this list, some results may not be relevant to the topic. If no bills are displayed below, no legislation pertaining to this topic has been introduced in the legislature recently.

    Groups

    To nominate a group for inclusion on the list below, email us at editor@ballotpedia.org. Below is a partial list of environmental advocacy organizations in Kentucky. A complete list of groups by state can be accessed on the website Eco-USA.[59]

    See also

    External links

    Footnotes

    1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Clean Air Act Requirements and History," accessed August 7, 2014
    2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Understanding the Clean Air Act," accessed August 7, 2014
    3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "History of the Clean Air Act," accessed August 7, 2014
    4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Benefits and Costs of Cleaning Up Toxic Air Pollution from Power Plants," accessed February 2, 2016
    5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Mercury and Air Toxics Standards (MATS) - Basic Information," accessed February 2, 2016
    6. U.S. Supreme Court, "Michigan v. Environmental Protection Agency," June 29, 2015
    7. CNN.com, "Supreme Court: EPA unreasonably interpreted the Clean Air Act," June 29, 2015
    8. Associated Press, "High court strikes down power plant regulations," June 29, 2015
    9. PowerMag.com, "Twenty States Call on Supreme Court to Stay EPA Mercury Rule," February 25, 2016
    10. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Power Plants Likely Covered by the Toxics Rule," accessed January 19, 2016
    11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Ground Level Ozone: Regulatory Actions," accessed February 2, 2016
    12. 12.0 12.1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Overview of EPA's Proposal to Update the Air Quality Standards for Ground-Level Ozone," November 25, 2014 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "overview" defined multiple times with different content
    13. Washington Examiner, "EPA tries to appease green groups mad about ozone rules," October 1, 2015
    14. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Ground Level Ozone by the numbers," accessed February 2, 2016
    15. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Overview of the Clean Power Plan," accessed November 3, 2015
    16. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Clean Power Plan Toolbox for States," accessed November 3, 2015
    17. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Clean Power Plan - Rule Summary," August 3, 2015
    18. E&E News, "E&E's Power Plan Hub: Legal Challenges," accessed February 10, 2016
    19. 19.0 19.1 The New York Times, "Supreme Court Deals Blow to Obama’s Efforts to Regulate Coal Emissions," February 9, 2016
    20. The Hill, "Supreme Court climate fight shakes up Senate races," February 10, 2016
    21. The Hill, "Trump signs order to roll back Obama's climate moves," March 28, 2017
    22. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Clean Power Plan State Goal Visualizer," accessed January 2, 2016
    23. 23.0 23.1 23.2 Congressional Research Service, "Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data," December 29, 2014
    24. U.S. National Park Service, "National Park Service Overview," July 13, 2015
    25. U.S. Department of the Interior, "Payment in Lieu of Taxes," accessed February 1, 2016
    26. U.S. Department of the Interior, "Frequently Asked Questions," accessed February 8, 2016
    27. U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Public Land Statistics 2014," May 2015
    28. U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Oil and Gas Lease Sales," accessed October 20, 2014
    29. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Summary of the Clean Water Act,” accessed January 29, 2014
    30. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "NPDES Home," accessed September 23, 2014
    31. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Water Activity Dashboard," accessed January 26, 2016
    32. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Drinking Water Activity Dashboard," accessed February 2, 2016
    33. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Section 404 Permitting," accessed September 23, 2014
    34. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "CWA Section 404-Permits to Discharge Dredged or Fill Material," accessed September 22, 2014
    35. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Jurisdictional Determination Form Instructional Guidebook," May 30, 2007
    36. Cornell University Law School, "33 U.S. Code, Section 1362 (Text of the Clean Water Act)," accessed September 22, 2014
    37. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "33 U.S. Code, Section 1251 (Text of the Clean Water Act)," accessed September 19, 2014
    38. Goodwin Proctor Newsletter, "Supreme Court Requires 'Significant Nexus' to Navigable Waters for Jurisdiction under Clean Water Act §404," July 5, 2006
    39. USA Today, "Obama vetoes attempt to kill clean water rule," January 19, 2016
    40. Reuters, "Court Places Hold On Clean Water Rule Nationwide," October 9, 2015
    41. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Clean Water Rule Factsheet," accessed May 28, 2015
    42. Washington Post, "North Dakota district court blocks controversial ‘Waters of the United States’ rule (UPDATED)," August 28, 2015
    43. The Hill, "Federal judge blocks Obama’s water rule," August 27, 2015
    44. The Associated Press, "Judge Rules Obama Administration Water Rule Should Be Halted," August 27, 2015
    45. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Superfund Glossary, S," accessed December 1, 2014
    46. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Superfund Glossary, N," accessed November 25, 2014
    47. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Introduction to the Hazard Ranking System (HRS)," accessed February 17, 2015
    48. Property and Environment Research Center, "Superfund Follies, Part II," accessed October 7, 2014
    49. Property and Environment Research Center, "Superfund: The Shortcut That Failed (1996)," accessed October 7, 2014
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