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Flowback
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Flowback is a mixture of water, dirt, sand, and chemicals that flows to the surface after a well has been hydraulically fracked. Flowback resurfaces after frac fluid (an abbreviation of fracturing fluid) is injected into an oil or natural gas well to reduce friction pressure and create a fracture. Operators either recycle flowback for reuse in another oil or gas well or dispose of it at an underground injection facility. The portion of fluid that does not return to the surface remains either in the well or in rock formations thousands of feet under the Earth's surface.[1]
Background
Frac fluid consists of water, sand (or other type of proppant), and chemical additives. The additives are used to increase the amount of oil or gas extracted from the well. The type and amount of chemical additives and proppants depend on the geology of the area around the well. The fluid is injected into an oil or natural gas well to create fractures and expand the surface area of a reservoir so as to enhance oil and gas recovery. The proppants in the fluid (such as silica sand) are used to prevent the induced fracture from closing. Flowback (frac fluid and water) flows back out of the well and can include some of the chemicals used during the fracking process. It may also include clay, total dissolved solids, and dissolved metal ions.[2][3] Flowback can differ from wastewater and produced water. Contaminated water that is stored in underground injection wells is called wastewater, which includes produced water and flowback. Produced water is salt water that has resided under the Earth for millions of years and is released during oil and natural gas extraction. Produced water can also be reused during hydraulic fracturing.[4][5][6]
Regulation
The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 required the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to devise national drinking water standards, which are primarily enforced by state governments authorized by the EPA. Part C of the act required the EPA to establish underground injection control programs “to prevent underground injection which endangers drinking water sources.” At the time, the EPA interpreted the act to exclude fracking from underground injection regulation, arguing that the purpose of fracking is to extract natural gas and not to inject fluids into a well.[7][8]
The Energy Policy Act of 2005 modified federal law to exclude “the underground injection of fluids or propping agents (other than diesel fuels) pursuant to hydraulic fracturing operations related to oil, gas, or geothermal production activities” from the EPA’s underground injection control program. The 2005 act effectively permitted state governments to regulate fracking as the process relates to underground drinking water sources, though state regulations must meet the minimum requirements outlined in applicable federal regulations.[8]
31 states had natural gas production as of 2013. States with fracking regulate the location and spacing of wells, drilling methods, lining of wells, the process of fracking itself, plugging wells, waste disposal, and site reclamation. States can allow their environmental regulatory agency to regulate fracking; other states regulate fracking through their oil and gas commissions.[9]
For more information on state-specific fracking regulations, click here.
Fracking overview
Hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking, is a method of oil and natural gas extraction. The process involves injecting fluid into subterranean rock formations at high pressure. The high-pressure fluid produces a fracture network that allows crude oil and natural gas inside dense rocks to flow into a wellbore and be extracted at the surface. The fluid (known as frac fluid) contains between 98 percent and 99.5 percent water and sand; between 0.5 percent and 2 percent of the fluid is composed of chemical additives, which are used to stop the growth of microorganisms, prevent well casing corrosion, increase the rate at which the fluid is injected, and reduce pressure, among other things.[10]
According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), there were approximately 23,000 hydraulically fractured wells in the United States in 2000. In 2015, the United States contained approximately 300,000 hydraulically fractured wells, accounting for 67 percent of U.S. natural gas production and 51 percent of U.S. crude oil production.[11][12][13]
Water and fracking
- See also: Water pollution
2016 EPA study on fracking
On December 13, 2016, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released a final report requested by Congress in 2010 on the impact of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) on drinking water resources. The EPA report stated that there was "scientific evidence that hydraulic fracturing activities can impact drinking water resources in the United States under some circumstances." An earlier draft version of the report, released in June 2015, concluded that fracking had not resulted in any widespread or systemic impact on drinking water quality. That conclusion was deleted in the report's final version. Instead, according to Tom Burke, EPA Deputy Administrator, "We [the EPA] found scientific evidence of impacts to drinking water resources at each stage of the hydraulic fracturing water cycle."[14] According to the report, the agency based its study on 1,200 scientific sources, peer review by the EPA's Science Advisory Board, and input from federal, state, local, tribal, and industry officials.[15][16] However, the EPA acknowledged that its findings were limited in scope, reporting that "uncertainties and data gaps limited the EPA's ability to fully assess impacts to drinking water resources both locally and nationally."
The December 2016 report is a finalized version of an interim report issued by the EPA in 2015. To read more about the interim report, see this article.
Findings
The EPA concluded that, in some circumstances, poorly constructed drilling wells and incorrect wastewater management affected drinking water resources, particularly near drilling sites. According to the report, effects on drinking water "ranged in severity, from temporary changes in water quality to contamination that made private drinking wells unusable." Instances where drinking water resources were more vulnerable included the following:
| “ |
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| —Environmental Protection Agency[15] | ||
The report focused on the potential impact on water sources during five stages of the fracking process:[15][16]
- The acquisition of water to be used for fracking
- The mixing of chemical additives and water to make fracking fluids
- The injection of fracking fluids into a production well to create and enlarge fractures in the targeted production zone.
- The collection of wastewater that returns through a well after the injection of fracking fluids
- The management of wastewater through disposal or reuse.
Reactions
- The American Petroleum Institute (API), which represents the oil and natural gas industry, criticized the EPA report as misleading. "It is beyond absurd for the administration to reverse course on its way out the door. The agency has walked away from nearly a thousand sources of information from published papers, technical reports, and peer-reviewed scientific reports demonstrating that industry practices, industry trends, and regulatory programs protect water resources at every step of the hydraulic fracturing process. Decisions like this amplify the public's frustrations with Washington," said API Upstream Director Erik Milito. Milito further stated, "Fortunately, the science and data clearly demonstrate that hydraulic fracturing does not lead to widespread, systemic impacts to drinking water resources. Unfortunately, consumers have witnessed five years and millions of dollars expended only to see a conclusion based in science changed to a conclusion based in political ambiguity."[18]
- Energy in Depth, a website established by the Independent Petroleum Association of America, an oil and gas industry group, endorsed the EPA's conclusion, which it argues reinforces its view that there is no systematic impact from fracking, but also criticized the EPA's role in the report. A spokesperson for the website said, "EPA’s report blows apart the anti-fracking campaign’s most common claim, namely that hydraulic fracturing is polluting groundwater all across America" but that the "EPA did its best to inject politics into this good news by inflating concerns about groundwater, no doubt as a parting thank-you gift to the ‘Keep It In the Ground’ movement." The Keep It In the Ground movement refers to a collection of individuals, legislators, and organizations that oppose future oil and natural gas drilling.[14][19]
- Food and Water Watch, an environmental group that opposes fracking, said the report confirmed its view that fracking contaminates drinking water. According to Wenonah Hauter, the group's executive director, "The EPA has confirmed what we’ve known all along: fracking can and does contaminate drinking water. We are pleased that the agency has acted on the recommendations of its Science Advisory Board and chosen [sic] be frank about the inherent harms and hazards of fracking. Today the Obama administration has rightly prioritized facts and science, and put public health and environmental protection over the profit-driven interests of the oil and gas industry."[20]
- The Sierra Club, an environmental group that opposes fracking, said the report confirmed its view that fracking negatively affects drinking water. According to the group's official statement, "The Sierra Club applauds the EPA for its science-based fracking report, confirming what so many already knew; fracking presents a clear and present threat to our water, our public health, and our communities. For far too long, communities around the country have faced the daily threat of contaminated water, earthquakes, and an uncertain future due to fracking, all while oil and gas companies peddled the false claim that the process was safe. Today’s report ends this charade. No longer will families be told a lie as their health and safety are threatened."[21]
2015 Duke University study
A September 2015 study from researchers at Duke University found that fracking operations used 250 billion gallons of water from 2005 to 2014, which accounted for less than 1 percent of all water use nationwide. During that time, fracking also produced 210 billion gallons of wastewater. The study also found that "compared to other energy extraction methods, fracking is less water-intensive in the long run" because less water is used for each unit of energy that is produced. This study was funded by the National Science Foundation and the Duke University Energy Initiative.[22][23][24]
Energy in the 50 states
Click on a state below to read more about that state's energy policy.
See also
Footnotes
- ↑ The Institute for Energy & Environmental Research for Northeastern Pennsylvania, “What is flowback and how does it differ from produced water?” accessed January 27, 2014
- ↑ Petrowiki, "Fracturing fluids and additives," accessed June 29, 2016
- ↑ Geology.com, "Hydraulic Fracturing Fluids - Composition and Additives," accessed June 28, 2016
- ↑ Seismology Society of America, "Fracking Confirmed as Cause of Rare 'Felt' Earthquake in Ohio," January 5, 2015
- ↑ Energy in Depth, "Underground Wastewater Disposal," accessed July 9, 2015
- ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle," April 20, 2016
- ↑ Legal Information Institute, "42 U.S. Code Section 300h - Regulations for State programs," accessed February 10, 2017
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Congressional Research Service, "Hydraulic Fracturing and Safe Drinking Water Act Regulatory Issues," July 13, 2015
- ↑ Groundwater Protection Council, "State oil and natural gas regulations designed to protect water resources," May 2009
- ↑ Frack Wire, “What is Fracking,” accessed January 28, 2014
- ↑ University of Oklahoma, "Hydraulic Fracturing and Water Resources," accessed March 12, 2014
- ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Hydraulic fracturing accounts for about half of current U.S. crude oil production," March 15, 2016
- ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Hydraulically fractured wells provide two-thirds of U.S. natural gas production," May 5, 2016
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 The Hill, "EPA reverses course on fracking safety," December 13, 2016
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)," accessed December 13, 2016
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "EPA Releases Final Report on Impacts from Hydraulic Fracturing Activities on Drinking Water," December 13, 2016
- ↑ Note: This text is quoted verbatim from the original source. Any inconsistencies are attributable to the original source.
- ↑ PR News Wire, "API: EPA distorts science in hydraulic fracturing study," December 13, 2016
- ↑ Energy in Depth, "*UPDATE* EPA Finalized Groundwater Report Reinforces No Widespread, Systemic Impacts from Fracking," December 13, 2016
- ↑ Common Dreams, " Statement of Wenonah Hauter, Executive Director, Food & Water Watch," December 13, 2016
- ↑ Sierra Club, "EPA report confirms threat posed by fracking," December 13, 2016
- ↑ American Chemical Society, "Water Footprint of Hydraulic Fracturing," September 15, 2015
- ↑ Duke University, "How Much Water Does U.S. Fracking Really Use?" September 15, 2015
- ↑ Reuters, "Water demand from fracking less than 1 percent of U.S. total: study," September 15, 2015
