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Historical Kentucky environmental information, 1971-2016

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State environmental policy
U.S. environmental policy
Endangered species policy
State endangered species
Federal land policy
Environmental terms
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The historical environmental information below applies to prior years. For more current information regarding environmental policy in Kentucky, see this article.

Land ownership

See also: Federal land policy and Federal land ownership by state

In 2012, the federal government owned between 635 million and 640 million of the 2.27 billion acres of land in the United States, about 28 percent of the total. Around 52 percent of federally owned acres were in 12 Western states—including Alaska, 61 percent of which was federally owned. In contrast, the federal government owned 4 percent of land in the other 38 states. Federal land policy is designed to manage minerals, oil and gas resources, timber, wildlife and fish, and other natural resources found on federal land. Land management policies are highly debated for their economic, environmental and social impacts. Additionally, the size of the federal estate and the acquisition of more federal land are major issues.[1][2]

According to the Congressional Research Service, Kentucky spans 25.51 million acres. Of that total, 4.25 percent, or 1.08 million acres, belonged to the federal government as of 2012. More than 24.4 million acres in Kentucky are not owned by the federal government, or 5.55 non-federal acres per capita. From 1990 to 2010, the federal government's land ownership in Kentucky increased by 116,621 acres.[1]

The table below shows federal land ownership in Kentucky compared to its neighbor, Tennessee, and a Western state, Wyoming. The U.S. Forest Service owned 814,045 acres in Kentucky compared to 718,019 acres in Tennessee and 9.2 million acres in Wyoming. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which manages endangered species, owned 10,938 acres in Kentucky compared to 52,037 acres in Tennessee and 70,674 acres in Wyoming.

Federal land ownership in Kentucky and other states by agency
State
Agency Kentucky Tennessee Wyoming
Acres owned Percentage owned Acres owned Percentage owned Acres owned Percentage owned
U.S. Forest Service 814,045 75.16% 718,019 56.36% 9,241,610 30.76%
U.S. National Park Service 94,395 8.72% 356,342 27.97% 2,344,852 7.80%
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 10,938 1.01% 52,037 4.08% 70,674 0.24%
U.S. Bureau of Land Management 0 0.00% 0 0.00% 18,370,351 61.15%
U.S. Department of Defense 163,726 15.12% 147,576 11.58% 16,025 0.05%
Total federal land 1,083,104 100% 1,273,974 100% 30,043,512 100.00%
Source: Congressional Research Service, "Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data"

Land usage

Recreation

National parks in Kentucky

Federal lands and Indian reservations in Kentucky by government agency (click on the image to enlarge)

Kentucky has four National Park Service units, two national forests and one national historic trail. A study by the U.S. National Park Service found that 1.6 million visitors attended Kentucky's national parks and monuments and generated $99.2 million in visitor spending in 2013.[3]

Pine Mountain State Resort Park in Pineville, Kentucky

State recreation lands

The table below contains a list of all state parks in Kentucky.[4]

Economic activity on federal lands

Oil and gas activity

See also: BLM oil and gas leases by state

Private mining companies, including oil and natural gas companies, can apply for leases from the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to explore and produce energy on federal land. The company seeking a lease must nominate the land for oil and gas exploration to the BLM, which evaluates and approves the lease. The BLM state offices make leasing decisions based on their land use plans, which contain information on the land's resources and the potential environmental impact of oil or gas exploration. If federal lands are approved for leasing, the BLM requires an application from the company containing information on how the exploration, drilling and production will be conducted. Afterward, the BLM will produce an environmental analysis and a list of requirements before work on the land can begin. The agency also inspects drilling and producing on the leased lands.[5]

In 2013, there were 47,427 active leases covering 36.09 million acres of federal land nationwide. Of that total, 69 leases (0.15 percent of all leases), covering 37,998 acres (0.11 percent of all leased land in 2013), were in Kentucky. In 2013, out of 3,770 new drilling leases approved nationwide by the BLM for oil and gas exploration, no leases were in Kentucky.[6][7][8][9][10]

The table below shows how Kentucky compared to neighboring states in oil and gas permits on BLM-managed lands in 2013. Kentucky had more active leases and acres under lease than Tennessee and Virginia but fewer than West Virginia.

Oil and gas leasing on BLM lands by state
State Active permits on BLM lands (FY 2013) Total acres under lease (FY 2013) State percentage of total permits State percentage of total acres
Kentucky 69 37,998 0.15% 0.11%
Tennessee 2 736 0.00% 0.00%
Virginia 39 28,547 0.08% 0.08%
West Virginia 257 119,883 0.54% 0.33%
Total United States 47,427 permits 36,092,482 acres - -
Source: U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Oil and Gas Statistics"

Payments in lieu of taxes

See also: Payments in lieu of taxes

Since local governments cannot collect taxes on federally owned property, the U.S. Department of the Interior issues payments to local governments to replace lost property tax revenue from federal land. The payments, known as "Payments in Lieu of Taxes" (PILTs), are typically used for funding services such as fire departments, police protection, school construction and roads.[11]

The table below shows PILTs for Kentucky compared to neighboring states between 2011 and 2013. Kentucky received more PILTs in 2013 than Tennessee but fewer than Virginia and West Virginia.

Total PILTs for Kentucky and neighboring states
State FY 2011 FY 2012 FY 2013 State's percentage of 2013 total
Kentucky $1,553,048 $1,835,766 $1,949,675 0.49%
Tennessee $1,695,519 $1,826,471 $1,877,039 0.47%
Virginia $2,791,489 $3,113,070 $3,263,807 0.81%
West Virginia $2,863,940 $2,953,219 $2,892,560 0.72%
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, "PILT"


Legislation and regulation

Federal laws

Clean Air Act

The federal Clean Air Act requires each state to meet federal standards for air pollution. Under the act, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency oversees national air quality standards aimed at limiting pollutants from chemical plants, steel mills, utilities, and industrial factories. Individual states can enact stricter air standards if they choose, though each state must adhere to the EPA's minimum pollution standards. States implement federal air standards through a state implementation plan (SIP), which must be approved by the EPA.[12]

Clean Water Act

The federal Clean Water Act is meant to address and maintain the physical, chemical, and biological status of the waters of the United States. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates water pollution sources and provides financial assistance to states and municipalities for water quality programs.[13]

According to research done by The New York Times using annual averages from 2004 to 2007, Kentucky had 1801.5 facilities that were regulated annually by the Clean Water Act. An average of 320 facilities violated the act annually from 2004 to 2007 in Kentucky, and the EPA enforced the act an average of 38.2 times a year in the state. This information, published by the Times in 2009, was the most recent information on the subject as of October 2014.[14]

The table below shows how Kentucky compared to neighboring states in The New York Times study, including the number of regulated facilities, facility violations, and the annual average of enforcement actions against regulated facilities between 2004 and 2007. Kentucky had the most regulated facilities compared to neighboring states. Kentucky had more facility violations than Virginia and West Virginia but fewer than Tennessee.

The New York Times Clean Water Act study (2004-2007)
State Number of facilities regulated Facility violations Annual average enforcement actions
Kentucky 1,801.5 320 38.2
Tennessee 1,274.8 489.8 8.6
Virginia 1,120.0 147.8 37.0
West Virginia 799.3 258 71.3
Source: The New York Times, "Clean Water Act Violations: The Enforcement Record"

Endangered Species Act

See also: Endangered species in Kentucky

The federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 provides for the identification, listing, and protection of both threatened and endangered species and their habitats. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the law was designed to prevent the extinction of vulnerable plant and animal species through the development of recovery plans and the protection of critical habitats. ESA administration and enforcement are the responsibility of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service.[15][16]

Federally listed species in Kentucky

There were 46 endangered and threatened animal and plant species believed to or known to occur in Kentucky as of July 2015.

The table below lists the 36 endangered and threatened animal species believed to or known to occur in the state. When an animal species has the word "Entire" after its name, that species will be found all throughout the state.[17]

The table below lists the 10 endangered and threatened plant species believed to or known to occur in the state.[18]

Enforcement

See also: Enforcement at the EPA

Kentucky is part of the EPA's Region 4, which includes Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina and Tennessee.

The EPA enforces federal standards on air, water and hazardous chemicals. The EPA can engage in its own administrative action against private industries, or it can bring civil and/or criminal lawsuits against them. The goal of environmental law enforcement is usually the collection of penalties and fines for violations of laws like the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act. In 2013, the EPA estimated that 32.5 million pounds of pollution, which includes air pollution, water contaminants, and hazardous chemicals, were "reduced, treated or eliminated" and 16.6 million cubic yards of soil and water were cleaned in Region 4. Additionally, 420 enforcement cases were initiated, and 416 enforcement cases were concluded in fiscal year 2013. In fiscal year 2012, the EPA collected $252 million in criminal fines and civil penalties from the private sector nationwide. In fiscal year 2013, the EPA collected $1.1 billion in criminal fines and civil penalties from the private sector nationwide, primarily due to the $1 billion settlement from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill along the Gulf Coast in 2010. The EPA only publishes nationwide data and does not provide state or region-specific information on the amount of fines and penalties it collects during a fiscal year.[19][20][21][22]

Mercury and air toxics standards

See also: Mercury and air toxics standards
The EPA on mercury capture systems

The EPA enforces mercury and air toxics standards (MATS), which are national limits on mercury, chromium, nickel, arsenic and acidic gases from coal- and oil-fired power plants. Power plants are required to have certain technologies to limit these pollutants. In December 2011, the EPA issued greater restrictions on the amount of mercury and other toxic pollutants produced by power plants. As of 2014, approximately 580 power plants, including 1,400 oil- and coal-fired electric-generating units, fell under the federal rule. The EPA has claimed that power plants account for 50 percent of mercury emissions, 75 percent of acidic gases and around 20 to 60 percent of toxic metal emissions in the United States. All coal- and oil-fired power plants with a capacity of 25 megawatts or greater are subject to the standards. The EPA has claimed that the standards will "prevent up to 210 premature deaths in Kentucky while creating up to $1.8 billion in health benefits in 2016."[23][24][25]

In 2014, the EPA released a study examining the economic, environmental, and health impacts of the MATS standards nationwide. Other organizations have released their own analyses about the effects of the MATS standards. Below is a summary of the studies on MATS and their effects as of November 2014.

EPA study
In 2014, the EPA argued that its MATS rule would prevent roughly 11,000 premature deaths and 130,000 asthma attacks nationwide. The agency also anticipated between $37 billion and $90 billion in "improved air quality benefits" annually. For the rule's cost, the EPA estimated that annual compliance fees for coal- and oil-fired power plants would reach $9.6 billion.[26]

NERA study
A 2012 study published by NERA Economic Consulting, a global consultancy group, reported that annual compliance costs in the electricity sector would total $10 billion in 2015 and nearly $100 billion cumulatively up through 2034. The same study found that the net impact of the MATS rule in 2015 would be the income equivalent of 180,000 fewer jobs. This net impact took into account the job gains associated with the building and refitting of power plants with new technology.[27]

Superfund sites

The EPA established the Superfund program as part of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980.The Superfund program focuses on uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites nationwide. The EPA inspects waste sites and establishes cleanup plans for them. The federal government can compel the private entities responsible for a waste site to clean the site or face penalties. If the federal government cleans a waste site, it can force the responsible party to reimburse the EPA or other federal agencies for the cleanup's cost. Superfund sites include oil refineries, smelting facilities, mines and other industrial areas. As of October 2014, there were 1,322 Superfund sites nationwide. A total of 186 Superfund sites reside in Region 4, with an average of 23.25 sites per state. There were 14 Superfund sites in Kentucky as of October 2014.[28][29]

Economic impact
EPA studies
The Environmental Protection Agency publishes studies to evaluate the impact and benefits of its policies. Other studies may dispute the agency's findings or state the costs of its policies.

According to the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), an independent federal agency, the Superfund program received an average of almost $1.2 billion annually in appropriated funds between the years 1981 and 2009, adjusted for inflation. The GAO estimated that the trust fund of the Superfund program decreased from $5 billion in 1997 to $137 million in 2009. The Superfund program received an additional $600 million in federal funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, also known as the stimulus bill.[30]

In March 2011, the EPA claimed that the agency's Superfund program produced economic benefits nationwide. Because Superfund sites are added and removed from a prioritized list on a regular basis, the total number of Superfund sites since the program's inception in 1980 is unknown. Based on a selective study of 373 Superfund sites cleaned up since the program's inception, the EPA estimated these economic benefits include the creation of 2,240 private businesses, $32.6 billion in annual sales from new businesses, 70,144 jobs and $4.9 billion in annual employment income.[31]

Other studies were published detailing the costs associated with the Superfund program. According to the Property and Environment Research Center, a free market-oriented policy group based in Montana, the EPA spent over $35 billion on the Superfund program between 1980 and 2005.[32][33]

Environmental impact

In a March 2011 study, the EPA claimed that the Superfund program results in healthier environments surrounding former waste sites. The study analyzed the program's health and ecological benefits and focused on former landfills, mining areas and abandoned dumps that were cleaned up and renovated. As of January 2009, out of the approximately 500 former Superfund sites used for the study, roughly 10 percent became recreational or commercial sites. Other former Superfund sites in the study became wetlands, meadows, streams, scenic trails, parks, and habitats for plants and animals.[34]

Carbon emissions

See also: Climate change, Greenhouse gas and Greenhouse gas emissions by state

In 2011, Kentucky ranked 12th in CO2 emissions nationwide. Kentucky is home to a large electric power industry, which accounted for 63.4 percent of the state's emissions in 2011. Emissions peaked at 156 million metric tons of CO2 in 2006 and 2007 and have declined slightly since 2007. Though the electric power sector accounted for the largest share of emissions, the state's transportation sector accounted for more than one-fifth of Kentucky's emissions in 2011 (21.2 percent). The commercial, residential and industrial sectors accounted for the remainder.[35]

Carbon dioxide emissions in Kentucky (in million metric tons). Data was compiled by the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
Carbon dioxide emissions in Kentucky by sector

Pollution from energy use

Pollution from energy use includes three common air pollutants: carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone. These and other pollutants are regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) through the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, which are federal standards limiting pollutants that can harm human health in significant concentrations. Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is also regulated by the EPA, but it is excluded here since it is not one of the pollutants originally regulated under the Clean Air Act for its harm to human health.

Industries and motor vehicles emit carbon monoxide directly when they use energy. Nitrogen dioxide forms from the emissions of automobiles, power plants and other sources. Ground level ozone (also known as tropospheric ozone) is not emitted but is the product of chemical reactions between nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic chemicals. The EPA tracks these and other pollutants from monitoring sites across the United States. The data below shows nationwide and regional trends for carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone between 2000 and 2014. States with consistent climates and weather patterns were grouped together by the EPA to make up each region.[36][37]

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas produced from combustion processes (e.g., when gasoline reacts with oxygen to give off heat and releases exhaust). The majority of national CO emissions come from mobile sources like automobiles. When inhaled, CO can reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and at very high levels can cause death. CO concentrations are measured in parts per million (ppm). Since 1994, federal law has prohibited CO concentrations from exceeding 9 ppm during an eight-hour period more than once per year.[38][39]

The chart below compares the annual average concentration of carbon monoxide (CO) in the Central and Upper Midwestern regions of the United States between 2000 and 2014. Carbon monoxide concentrations are measured in parts per million (ppm). States with consistent climates and weather patterns were grouped together by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which collects these data, to make up each region. Each line represents the annual average of all the data collected from pollution monitoring sites in each region. In the Central region, there were 25 monitoring sites throughout the seven states. In the Upper Midwest, there were seven monitoring sites throughout the four states. In 2000, the average concentration of carbon monoxide was 3.5 ppm in the Central region, compared to 2.67 ppm in the Upper Midwest. In 2014, the average concentration of carbon monoxide was 1.34 ppm in the Central region, a decrease of 61.6 percent from 2000, compared to 0.96 ppm in the Upper Midwest, a decrease of 64.1 percent from 2000.[40]

Central Upper-Midwest Comparison.png

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Note: Annual data on nitrogen dioxide levels in the Upper Midwest between 2000 and 2014 are unavailable.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is one of a group of gasses known as nitrogen oxides (NOx). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) measures NO2 as a representative for the larger group of nitrogen oxides. NO2 forms from the emissions of cars, buses, trucks, power plants, and off-road equipment. It helps form ground-level ozone and fine particle pollution, and has been linked to respiratory problems. Since 1971, federal law prohibits NO2 concentrations from exceeding a daily one-hour average of 100 parts per billion (ppb) and an annual average of 53 parts per billion (ppb).[39][41][39]

The chart below compares the annual one-hour average concentration of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the Central and Southeastern regions of the United States between 2000 and 2014. In the Central region, there were 14 monitoring sites throughout seven states, and there were 14 monitoring sites throughout six states in the Southeast. In 2000, the one-hour daily average concentration of NO2 was 64.41 ppb in the Central region, compared to 57 ppb in the Southeast. In 2014, the one-hour daily average concentration of NO2 was 47.4 ppb in the Central region, a decrease of 26.4 percent since 2000, compared to 38.36 ppb in the Southeast, a decrease of 32.6 percent since 2000.[42]

Central-SE regional comparison.png

Ground-level ozone

Ground-level ozone is created by chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in sunlight. Major sources of NOx and VOCs include industrial facilities, electric utilities, automobiles, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents. Ground-level ozone can produce health problems for children, the elderly, and asthmatics. Since 2008, federal law has prohibited ozone concentrations from exceeding a daily eight-hour average of 75 parts per billion (ppb). Beginning in 2025, federal law will prohibit ground-level ozone concentrations from exceeding a daily eight-hour average of 70 ppb.[39][43]

The chart below compares the daily eight-hour average concentration of ground-level ozone in the Central and Upper Midwestern regions of the United States between 2000 and 2014. In the chart below, ozone concentrations are measured in parts per million (ppm), which can be converted to parts per billion (ppb). In the Central region, there were 159 monitoring sites throughout seven states, compared to 61 monitoring sites throughout four states in the Upper Midwest. In 2000, the daily eight-hour average concentration of ozone was 0.0821 ppm, or 82.1 ppb in the Central region, compared to 0.0752 ppm, or 75.2 ppb in the Upper Midwest. In 2014, the daily eight-hour average concentration of ozone was 0.0651 ppm, or 65.1 ppb in the Central region, a decrease of 20.6 percent since 2000, compared to 0.0667 ppm, or 66.7 ppb in the Upper Midwest, a decrease of 11.2 percent since 2000.[44]

Central Upper-Midwest Comparison.png

State laws

Title 401 of the Kentucky Administrative Regulations contain the environmental rules and regulations administered by the Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection.[45]

Enforcement

The Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection is composed of six divisions:[46]

  • The Division for Air Quality maintains air quality and issues permits to industrial sources of air pollution.[47]
  • The Division of Compliance Assistance assists facilities with their responsibilities and obligations under Kentucky environmental law.[48]
  • The Division of Enforcement deals administratively with potential violations of Kentucky environmental rules by holding informal administrative hearings and investigating violations.[49]
  • The Division of Environmental Program Support conducts laboratory work and tests the department's environmental programs. The division studies underground storage tanks, groundwater, Superfund sites, rivers, lakes, streams and permits.[50]
  • The Division of Waste Management oversees waste management programs and provides assistance to municipalities and industrial facilities.[51]
  • The Division of Water manages water quality and administers permit programs for municipalities and industrial sources to maintain their water quality.[52]

Historical budget information

The table below shows state budget figures for Kentucky's environmental and natural resource departments compared to neighboring states.

Total state natural resource expenditures by state
State Departments/Divisions FY 2013 FY 2012 FY 2011
Kentucky Environmental Protection; Natural Resources $203,195,053 $212,271,475 $197,288,384
Tennessee Environment and Conservation $298,883,200 $295,337,600 $358,265,300
Virginia Natural Resources $481,441,541 $369,447,482 $400,402,974
West Virginia Environmental Protection $173,414,325 $178,298,652 N/A
Sources: Kentucky State Budget Office, Tennessee Department of Finance and Administration, Virginia Department of Planning and Budget, West Virginia State Budget Office

Major groups

Below is a list of environmental advocacy organizations in Kentucky.[53]

Ballot measures

Voting on the Environment
Environment.jpg
Ballot Measures
By state
By year
Not on ballot


Below is a list of ballot measures relating to environmental issues in Kentucky.

Natural resources

Ballotpedia staff have tracked no ballot measures relating to natural resources in Kentucky.

Environment

Ballotpedia staff have tracked no ballot measures relating to environment in Kentucky.

Water

Ballotpedia staff have tracked no ballot measures relating to water resources in Kentucky.

Recent news

The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms Kentucky environmental policy. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

Historical Kentucky environmental information, 1971-2016 - Google News

See also

External links

Footnotes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Congressional Research Service, "Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data," accessed September 15, 2014
  2. ↑ U.S. Congressional Research Service, "Federal Lands and Natural Resources: Overview and Selected Issues for the 113th Congress," December 8, 2014
  3. ↑ U.S. National Park Service, "2013 National Park Visitor Spending Effects Report," accessed October 14, 2014
  4. ↑ Kentucky Parks Department, "Find Parks," accessed December 16, 2014
  5. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Oil and Gas Lease Sales," accessed October 20, 2014
  6. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Number of Acres Leased During the Fiscal Year," accessed October 20, 2014
  7. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Total Number of Leases in Effect," accessed October 20, 2014
  8. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Summary of Onshore Oil and Gas Statistics," accessed October 20, 2014
  9. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Number of Drilling Permits Approved by Fiscal Year on Federal Lands," accessed October 20, 2014
  10. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Total Number of Acres Under Lease As of the Last Day of the Fiscal Year," accessed October 22, 2014
  11. ↑ U.S. Department of the Interior, "PILT," accessed October 4, 2014
  12. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Understanding the Clean Air Act," accessed September 12, 2014
  13. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Clean Water Act (CWA) Overview," accessed September 19, 2014
  14. ↑ The New York Times, "Clean Water Act Violations: The Enforcement Record," September 13, 2009
  15. ↑ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "Improving ESA Implementation," accessed May 15, 2015
  16. ↑ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "ESA Overview," accessed October 1, 2014
  17. ↑ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "Endangered and threatened species in Kentucky," accessed July 6, 2015
  18. ↑ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "Endangered and threatened species in Kentucky," accessed July 6, 2015
  19. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Annual EPA Enforcement Results Highlight Focus on Major Environmental Violations," February 7, 2014
  20. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Accomplishments by EPA Region," May 12, 2014
  21. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Enforcement Annual Results for Fiscal Year 2012," accessed October 1, 2014
  22. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "EPA Enforcement in 2012 Protects Communities From Harmful Pollution," December 17, 2012
  23. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Basic Information on Mercury and Air Toxics Standards," accessed January 5, 2015
  24. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Cleaner Power Plants," accessed January 5, 2015
  25. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Mercury and Air Toxics Standards in Kentucky," accessed September 9, 2014
  26. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Benefits and Costs of Cleaning Up Toxic Air Pollution from Power Plants," accessed October 9, 2014
  27. ↑ NERA Economic Consulting, "An Economic Impact Analysis of EPA's Mercury and Air Toxics Standards Rule," March 1, 2012
  28. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "What is Superfund?" accessed September 9, 2014
  29. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Priorities List (NPL) of Superfund Sites," accessed October 7, 2014
  30. ↑ U.S. Government Accountability Office, "EPA's Estimated Costs to Remediate Existing Sites Exceed Current Funding Levels, and More Sites Are Expected to Be Added to the National Priorities List," accessed October 7, 2014
  31. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Estimate of National Economic Impacts of Superfund Sites," accessed September 12, 2014
  32. ↑ Property and Environment Research Center, "Superfund Follies, Part II," accessed October 7, 2014
  33. ↑ Property and Environment Research Center, "Superfund: The Shortcut That Failed (1996)," accessed October 7, 2014
  34. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Beneficial Effects of the Superfund Program," accessed September 12, 2014
  35. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "State Profiles and Energy Estimates," accessed October 13, 2014
  36. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Air Trends," accessed October 30, 2015
  37. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Basic Information - Ozone," accessed January 1, 2016
  38. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Carbon Monoxide," accessed October 26, 2015
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)," accessed October 26, 2015
  40. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Regional Trends in CO Levels," accessed October 23, 2015
  41. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Nitrogen dioxide," accessed October 26, 2015
  42. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Regional Trends in Nitrogen Dioxide Levels," accessed October 23, 2015
  43. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Ground Level Ozone," accessed October 26, 2015
  44. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Regional Trends in Ozone Levels ," accessed October 26, 2015
  45. ↑ Kentucky State Legislature, "Title 401: Energy and Environment Regulations," accessed December 15, 2014
  46. ↑ Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection, "Department Organizational Chart," accessed December 16, 2014
  47. ↑ Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection, "Division for Air Quality," accessed December 16, 2014
  48. ↑ Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection, "Division of Compliance Assistance," accessed December 16, 2014
  49. ↑ Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection, "Division of Enforcement," accessed December 16, 2014
  50. ↑ Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection, "Division of Environmental Program Support," accessed December 16, 2014
  51. ↑ Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection, "Division of Waste Management," accessed December 16, 2014
  52. ↑ Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection, "Division of Water," accessed December 16, 2014
  53. ↑ Eco-USA.net, "Kentucky Environmental Organizations," accessed December 8, 2014
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