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Historical North Carolina environmental information, 1971-2016

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State environmental policy
U.S. environmental policy
Endangered species policy
State endangered species
Federal land policy
Environmental terms
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The historical environmental information below applies to prior years. For more current information regarding environmental policy in North Carolina, see this article.

Land ownership

See also: Federal land policy and Federal land ownership by state

The federal government owned between 635 million and 640 million acres of land in 2012 (about 28 percent) of the 2.27 billion acres of land in the United States. Around 52 percent of federally owned acres were in 12 Western states—including Alaska, 61 percent of which was federally owned. In contrast, the federal government owned 4 percent of land in the other 38 states. Federal land policy is designed to manage minerals, oil and gas resources, timber, wildlife and fish, and other natural resources found on federal land. Land management policies are highly debated for their economic, environmental and social impacts. Additionally, the size of the federal estate and the acquisition of more federal land are major issues.[1][2]

According to the Congressional Research Service, North Carolina spans 31.4 million acres. Of that total, 7.73 percent, or 2.42 million acres, belonged to the federal government as of 2012. More than 28 million acres in North Carolina are not owned by the federal government, or 2.94 non-federal acres per capita. From 1990 to 2010, the federal government's land ownership in North Dakota increased by 137,190 acres.[1]

The table below shows federal land ownership in North Carolina compared to its neighbor, Virginia, and a Western state, Nevada. The [[U.S. Forest Service owned more than 1.2 million acres in North Carolina, 51.7 percent of the state's federal land. The service owned more than 1.6 million acres in Virginia and more than 5.7 million acres in Nevada. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which manages endangered species, owned 419,969 acres in North Carolina compared to 129,566 acres in Virginia and more than 2.3 million acres in Nevada.

Federal land ownership in North Carolina and other states by agency
State
Agency North Carolina Virginia Nevada
Acres owned Percentage owned Acres owned Percentage owned Acres owned Percentage owned
U.S. Forest Service 1,255,614 51.74% 1,664,467 70.59% 5,764,262 10.12%
U.S. National Park Service 363,169 14.97% 304,289 12.90% 774,751 1.36%
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 419,969 17.31% 129,566 5.49% 2,335,400 4.10%
U.S. Bureau of Land Management 0 0.00% 805 0.03% 47,805,923 83.93%
U.S. Department of Defense 387,948 15.99% 258,944 10.98% 281,442 0.49%
Total federal land 2,426,700 100% 2,358,071 100% 56,961,778 100.00%
Source: Congressional Research Service, "Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data"

Land usage

Recreation

National parks in North Carolina

Federal lands and Indian reservations in North Carolina by government agency (click on the image to enlarge)

North Carolina has 10 National Park Service units, one national forest, 12 wilderness areas, two national historic sites, and two historic trails. A study by the U.S. National Park Service found that 16.13 million visitors attended North Carolina's national parks and monuments and generated $1.04 billion in visitor spending in 2013.[3]

Crowders Mountain State Park in Kings Mountain, North Carolina.

Economic activity on federal lands

Oil and gas activity

See also: BLM oil and gas permits by state

Private mining companies, including oil and natural gas companies, can apply for leases from the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to explore and produce energy on federal land. The company seeking a lease must nominate the land for oil and gas exploration to the BLM, which evaluates and approves the lease. The BLM state offices make leasing decisions based on their land use plans, which contain information on the land's resources and the potential environmental impact of oil or gas exploration. If federal lands are approved for leasing, the BLM requires an application from the company containing information on how the exploration, drilling and production will be conducted. Afterward, the BLM will produce an environmental analysis and a list of requirements before work on the land can begin. The agency also inspects the companies' drilling and producing on the leased lands.[4]

In 2013, there were 47,427 active leases covering 36.09 million acres of federal land nationwide. Of that total, no leases were in North Carolina. In 2013, out of 3,770 new drilling leases approved nationwide by the BLM for oil and gas exploration, no leases were in North Carolina.[5][6][7][8][9]

The table below shows how North Carolina compared to neighboring states in oil and gas permits on BLM-managed lands in 2013. North Carolina and South Carolina had no active leases and acres under lease.

Oil and gas leasing on BLM lands by state
State Active permits on BLM lands (FY 2013) Total acres under lease (FY 2013) State percentage of total permits State percentage of total acres
North Carolina 0 0 0.00% 0.00%
South Carolina 0 0 0.00% 0.00%
Tennessee 2 736 0.00% 0.00%
Virginia 39 28,547 0.08% 0.08%
Total United States 47,427 permits 36,092,482 acres - -
Source: U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Oil and Gas Statistics"

Payments in lieu of taxes

See also: Payments in lieu of taxes

Since local governments cannot collect taxes on federally owned property, the U.S. Department of the Interior issues payments to local governments to replace lost property tax revenue from federal land. The payments, known as "Payments in Lieu of Taxes" (PILTs), are typically used for funding services such as fire departments, police protection, school construction and roads.[10]

The table below shows PILTs for North Carolina compared to neighboring states between 2011 and 2013. North Carolina received more PILTs in 2013 compared to neighboring states.

Total PILTs for North Carolina and neighboring states
State FY 2011 FY 2012 FY 2013 State's percentage of 2013 total
North Carolina $3,919,443 $4,030,522 $3,997,200 1.00%
South Carolina $394,712 $405,963 $470,359 0.12%
Tennessee $1,695,519 $1,826,471 $1,877,039 0.47%
Virginia $2,791,489 $3,113,070 $3,263,807 0.81%
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, "PILT"

Legislation and regulation

Federal laws

Clean Air Act

The federal Clean Air Act requires each state to meet federal standards for air pollution. Under the act, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency oversees national air quality standards aimed at limiting pollutants from chemical plants, steel mills, utilities, and industrial factories. Individual states can enact stricter air standards if they choose, though each state must adhere to the EPA's minimum pollution standards. States implement federal air standards through a state implementation plan (SIP), which must be approved by the EPA.[11]

Clean Water Act

The federal Clean Water Act is meant to address and maintain the physical, chemical, and biological status of the waters of the United States. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates water pollution sources and provides financial assistance to states and municipalities for water quality programs.[12]

According to research done by The New York Times using annual averages from 2004 to 2007, North Carolina had 1329.8 facilities that were regulated annually by the Clean Water Act. An average of 667.6 facilities violated the act annually from 2004 to 2007 in North Carolina, and the EPA enforced the act an average of 573 times a year in the state. This information, published by the Times in 2009, was the most recent information on the subject as of October 2014.[13]

The table below shows how North Carolina compared to neighboring states in The New York Times study, including the number of regulated facilities, facility violations, and the annual average of enforcement actions against regulated facilities between 2004 and 2007.

The New York Times Clean Water Act study (2004-2007)
State Number of facilities regulated Facility violations Annual average enforcement actions
North Carolina 1329.8 667.6 573
South Carolina 531.8 327.4 48.9
Tennessee 1274.8 489.8 8.6
Virginia 1,120.0 147.8 37.0
Source: The New York Times, "Clean Water Act Violations: The Enforcement Record"

Endangered Species Act

The federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 provides for the identification, listing, and protection of both threatened and endangered species and their habitats. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the law was designed to prevent the extinction of vulnerable plant and animal species through the development of recovery plans and the protection of critical habitats. ESA administration and enforcement are the responsibility of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service.[14][15]

Federally listed species in North Carolina

There were 66 endangered and threatened animal and plant species believed to or known to occur in North Carolina as of July 2015.

The table below lists the 39 endangered and threatened animal species believed to or known to occur in the state. When an animal species has the word "Entire" after its name, that species will be found all throughout the state.[16]

The table below lists the 27 endangered and threatened plant species believed to or known to occur in the state.[16]

State-listed species in North Carolina

Under the North Carolina Endangered Species Act, the state's Wildlife Resources Commission is responsible for listing and conserving endangered and threatened species in North Carolina. A complete list of the state's protected species as of February 2014 can be found here.

Enforcement

See also: Enforcement at the EPA

North Carolina is part of the EPA's Region 4, which includes Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, Alabama, South Carolina and Tennessee.

The EPA enforces federal standards on air, water and hazardous chemicals. The EPA takes administrative action against violators of environmental laws, or brings civil and/or criminal lawsuits, often with the goal of collecting penalties/fines and demanding compliance with laws like the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act. In 2013, the EPA estimated that 32.5 million pounds of pollution, which includes air pollution, water contaminants, and hazardous chemicals, were "reduced, treated or eliminated" and 16.6 million cubic yards of soil and water were cleaned in Region 4. Additionally, 420 enforcement cases were initiated, and 416 enforcement cases were concluded in fiscal year 2013. In fiscal year 2012, the EPA collected $252 million in criminal fines and civil penalties from the private sector nationwide. In fiscal year 2013, the EPA collected $1.1 billion in criminal fines and civil penalties from the private sector nationwide, primarily due to the $1 billion settlement from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill along the Gulf Coast in 2010. The EPA only publishes nationwide data and does not provide state or region-specific information on the amount of fines and penalties it collects during a fiscal year.[17][18][19][20]

Mercury and air toxics standards

See also: Mercury and air toxics standards
The EPA on mercury capture systems

The EPA enforces mercury and air toxics standards (MATS), which are national limits on mercury, chromium, nickel, arsenic and acidic gases from coal- and oil-fired power plants. Power plants are required to have certain technologies to limit these pollutants. In December 2011, the EPA issued greater restrictions on the amount of mercury and other toxic pollutants produced by power plants. As of 2014, approximately 580 power plants, including 1,400 oil- and coal-fired electric-generating units, fell under the federal rule. The EPA has claimed that power plants account for 50 percent of mercury emissions, 75 percent of acidic gases and around 20 to 60 percent of toxic metal emissions in the United States. All coal- and oil-fired power plants with a capacity of 25 megawatts or greater are subject to the standards. The EPA has claimed that the standards will "prevent up to 480 premature deaths in North Carolina while creating up to $3.9 billion in health benefits in 2016."[21][22][23]

In 2014, the EPA released a study examining the economic, environmental, and health impacts of the MATS standards nationwide. Other organizations have released their own analyses about the effects of the MATS standards. Below is a summary of the studies on MATS and their effects as of November 2014.

EPA study
In 2014, the EPA reported that its MATS rule would prevent roughly 11,000 premature deaths and 130,000 asthma attacks nationwide. The agency also anticipated between $37 billion and $90 billion in "improved air quality benefits" annually. For the rule's cost, the EPA estimated that annual compliance fees for coal- and oil-fired power plants would reach $9.6 billion.[24]

NERA study
A 2012 study published by NERA Economic Consulting, a global consultancy group, reported that annual compliance costs in the electricity sector would total $10 billion in 2015 and nearly $100 billion cumulatively up through 2034. The same study found that the net impact of the MATS rule in 2015 would be the income equivalent of 180,000 fewer jobs. This net impact took into account the job gains associated with the building and refitting of power plants with new technology.[25]

Superfund sites

The EPA established the Superfund program as part of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980.The Superfund program focuses on uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites nationwide. The EPA inspects waste sites and establishes cleanup plans for them. The federal government can compel the private entities responsible for a waste site to clean the site or face penalties. If the federal government cleans a waste site, it can force the responsible party to reimburse the EPA or other federal agencies for the cleanup's cost. Superfund sites include oil refineries, smelting facilities, mines and other industrial areas. As of October 2014, there were 1,322 Superfund sites nationwide. A total of 186 Superfund sites reside in Region 4, with an average of 23.25 sites per state. There were 39 Superfund sites in North Carolina as of October 2014.[26][27]

Economic impact
EPA studies
The Environmental Protection Agency publishes studies to evaluate the impact and benefits of its policies. Other studies may dispute the agency's findings or state the costs of its policies.

According to the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), an independent federal agency, the Superfund program received an average of almost $1.2 billion annually in appropriated funds between the years 1981 and 2009, adjusted for inflation. The GAO estimated that the trust fund of the Superfund program decreased from $5 billion in 1997 to $137 million in 2009. The Superfund program received an additional $600 million in federal funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, also known as the stimulus bill.[28]

In March 2011, the EPA claimed that the agency's Superfund program produced economic benefits nationwide. Because Superfund sites are added and removed from a prioritized list on a regular basis, the total number of Superfund sites since the program's inception in 1980 is unknown. Based on a selective study of 373 Superfund sites cleaned up since the program's inception, the EPA estimated these economic benefits include the creation of 2,240 private businesses, $32.6 billion in annual sales from new businesses, 70,144 jobs and $4.9 billion in annual employment income.[29]

Other studies were published detailing the costs associated with the Superfund program. According to the Property and Environment Research Center, a free market-oriented policy group based in Montana, the EPA spent over $35 billion on the Superfund program between 1980 and 2005.[30][31]

Environmental impact

In March 2011, the EPA claimed that the Superfund program resulted in healthier environments surrounding former waste sites. An agency study analyzed the program's health and ecological benefits and focused on former landfills, mining areas, and abandoned dumps that were cleaned up and renovated. As of January 2009, out of the approximately 500 former Superfund sites used for the study, roughly 10 percent became recreational or commercial sites. Other former Superfund sites in the study became wetlands, meadows, streams, scenic trails, parks, and habitats for plants and animals.[32]

Carbon emissions

See also: Climate change, Greenhouse gas and Greenhouse gas emissions by state

In 2011, North Carolina ranked 15th nationwide in CO2 emissions, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration. North Carolina is 10th most-populated state and contains a large electric power sector. Emissions rose throughout the 1990s and peaked at 150 million metric tons of CO2 in 2005 and 2007. Emissions declined to 123 million metric tons in 2011. The majority of North Carolina's emissions came from the electric power sector (50.2 percent) and more than one-third (36.9 percent) of emissions came from the transportation sector. The commercial, residential and industrial sectors accounted for the remainder.[33]

Carbon dioxide emissions in North Carolina (in million metric tons). Data was compiled by the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
Carbon dioxide emissions in North Carolina by sector

Pollution from energy use

Pollution from energy use includes three common air pollutants: carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone. These and other pollutants are regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) through the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, which are federal standards limiting pollutants that can harm human health in significant concentrations. Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is also regulated by the EPA, but it is excluded here since it is not one of the pollutants originally regulated under the Clean Air Act for its harm to human health.

Industries and motor vehicles emit carbon monoxide directly when they use energy. Nitrogen dioxide forms from the emissions of automobiles, power plants and other sources. Ground level ozone (also known as tropospheric ozone) is not emitted but is the product of chemical reactions between nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic chemicals. The EPA tracks these and other pollutants from monitoring sites across the United States. The data below shows nationwide and regional trends for carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone between 2000 and 2014. States with consistent climates and weather patterns were grouped together by the EPA to make up each region.[34][35]

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas produced from combustion processes, e.g., when gasoline reacts rapidly with oxygen and releases exhaust; the majority of national CO emissions come from mobile sources like automobiles. CO can reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and at very high levels can cause death. CO concentrations are measured in parts per million (ppm). Since 1994, federal law prohibits CO concentrations from exceeding 9 ppm during an eight-hour period more than once per year.[36][37]

The chart below compares the annual average concentration of carbon monoxide in the Northeastern and Southeastern regions of the United States between 2000 and 2014. States with consistent climates and weather patterns are grouped together by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which collects these data, to make up each region. Each line represents the annual average of all the data collected from pollution monitoring sites in each region. In the Northeast, there were 32 monitoring sites throughout 11 states, compared to 22 monitoring sites throughout six states in the Southeast. In 2000, the average concentration of carbon monoxide was 2.7 ppm in the Northeast, compared to 3.91 ppm in the Southeast. In 2014, the average concentration of carbon monoxide was 1.2 ppm in the Northeast, a decrease of 61.1 percent from 2000, compared to 1.52 ppm in the Southeast, a decrease of 56.7 percent from 2000.[38]

NE SE regional comparison.png

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is one of a group of gasses known as nitrogen oxides (NOx). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) measures NO2 as a representative for the larger group of nitrogen oxides. NO2 forms from the emissions of cars, buses, trucks, power plants, and off-road equipment. It helps form ground-level ozone and fine particle pollution, and has been linked to respiratory problems. Since 1971, federal law prohibits NO2 concentrations from exceeding a daily one-hour average of 100 parts per billion (ppb) and an annual average of 53 parts per billion (ppb).[37][39][37]

The chart below compares the annual one-hour average concentration of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the Northeastern and Southeastern regions of the United States between 2000 and 2014. In the Northeast, there were 32 monitoring sites throughout 11 states, compared to 14 monitoring sites throughout six states in the Southeast. In 2000, the one-hour daily average concentration of NO2 was 61.31 ppb in the Northeast, compared to 57 ppb in the Southeast. In 2014, the one-hour daily average concentration of NO2 was 43.98 ppb in the Northeast, a decrease of 28.2 percent since 2000, compared to 38.36 ppb in the Southeast, a decrease of 32.6 percent since 2000.[40]

NE SE regional comparison.png

Ground-level ozone

Ground-level ozone is created by chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in sunlight. Major sources of NOx and VOCs include industrial facilities, electric utilities, automobiles, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents. Ground-level ozone can produce health problems for children, the elderly, and asthmatics. Since 2008, federal law has prohibited ozone concentrations from exceeding a daily eight-hour average of 75 parts per billion (ppb). Beginning in 2025, federal law will prohibit ground-level ozone concentrations from exceeding a daily eight-hour average of 70 ppb.[37][41]

The chart below compares the daily eight-hour average concentration of ground-level ozone in the Northeastern and Southeastern regions of the United States between 2000 and 2014. In the chart below, ozone concentrations are measured in parts per million (ppm), which can be converted to parts per billion (ppb). In the Northeast, there were 133 monitoring sites throughout 11 states, compared to 153 monitoring sites throughout six states in the Southeast. In 2000, the daily eight-hour average concentration of ozone was 0.083 ppm, or 83 ppb in the Northeast, compared to 0.082 ppm, or 82 ppb in the Southeast. In 2014, the daily eight-hour average concentration of ozone was 0.066 ppm, or 66 ppb in the Northeast, a decrease of 19.5 percent since 2000, compared to 0.063 ppm, or 63 ppb in the Southeast, a decrease of 23.9 percent since 2000.[42]

NE SE regional comparison.png

State laws

Title 15A of the North Carolina Administrative Code includes all rules and regulations on environmental policy and natural resources. The rules cover forest resources, water pollution, radiation protection, parks and recreation, waste management, and more.[43]

Enforcement

DENR-logo-color.jpg

The North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources is composed of several major divisions:[44]

  • The Air Quality Division oversees air quality and operates statewide air quality monitoring networks.[45]
  • The Water Resources Division maintains water quality and regulates large industrial sources that discharge wastes into surface waters such as rivers.[46]
  • The Coastal Management Division manages North Carolina's coasts and maintains public beaches and waterfront access.[47]
  • The Waste Management Division manages the use and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes and the use of underground storage tanks. The division also assists in the cleanup of contaminated sites, including Superfund sites.[48]
  • The Energy, Mineral and Land Resources Division oversees North Carolina's land and geologic resources and regulates mining, dams, and stormwater.[49]

State environmental policy act

See also: State environmental policy acts

The North Carolina Environmental Policy Act (also called the State Environmental Policy Act in the state) was passed in 1971. It requires state agencies to review and report the environmental impact of all state actions, expenditures used or the private use of public land that could affect any of the state's natural resources, public health, natural beauty or historical and cultural elements. The North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources' criteria to determine what projects require an environmental impact study are based on the type of project or activity and its size. All state agencies that fund or approve a state project are responsible for complying with the law. Proposed projects or activities require either an "Environmental Assessment" (EA) or an "Environmental Impact Statement" (EIS). Environmental assessments document the potential environmental impacts of the proposed project, but if there is no significant environmental impact found, then no more work is needed. If there will be a significant environmental impact, then an EIS must be prepared.[50]

Historical budget information

The table below shows state budget figures for North Carolina's environmental and natural resource departments compared to neighboring states.

Total state natural resource expenditures by state
State Departments/Divisions FY 2013 FY 2012 FY 2011
North Carolina Environment and Natural Resources $154,037,311 $148,148,105 $165,784,887
South Carolina Health and Environmental Control; Natural Resources $669,854,406 $653,287,073 $642,789,650
Tennessee Environment and Conservation $298,883,200 $295,337,600 $358,265,300
Virginia Natural Resources $481,441,541 $369,447,482 $400,402,974
Sources: General Assembly of North Carolina, South Carolina State House, Tennessee Department of Finance and Administration, Virginia Department of Planning and Budget

Major groups

Below is a list of environmental advocacy organizations in North Carolina. A complete list of environmental groups by state can be accessed on the website Eco-USA.[51]

Ballot measures

Voting on the Environment
Environment.jpg
Ballot Measures
By state
By year
Not on ballot


Below is a list of ballot measures relating to environmental issues in North Carolina.

Natural resources

Environment

Water

Recent news

The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms North Carolina environmental policy. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

Historical North Carolina environmental information, 1971-2016 - Google News

See also

External links

Footnotes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Congressional Research Service, "Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data," accessed September 15, 2014
  2. ↑ U.S. Congressional Research Service, "Federal Lands and Natural Resources: Overview and Selected Issues for the 113th Congress," December 8, 2014
  3. ↑ U.S. National Park Service, "2013 National Park Visitor Spending Effects Report," accessed October 14, 2014
  4. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Oil and Gas Lease Sales," accessed October 20, 2014
  5. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Number of Acres Leased During the Fiscal Year," accessed October 20, 2014
  6. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Total Number of Leases in Effect," accessed October 20, 2014
  7. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Summary of Onshore Oil and Gas Statistics," accessed October 20, 2014
  8. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Number of Drilling Permits Approved by Fiscal Year on Federal Lands," accessed October 20, 2014
  9. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Total Number of Acres Under Lease As of the Last Day of the Fiscal Year," accessed October 22, 2014
  10. ↑ U.S. Department of the Interior, "PILT," accessed October 4, 2014
  11. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Understanding the Clean Air Act," accessed September 12, 2014
  12. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Clean Water Act (CWA) Overview," accessed September 19, 2014
  13. ↑ The New York Times, "Clean Water Act Violations: The Enforcement Record," September 13, 2009
  14. ↑ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "Improving ESA Implementation," accessed May 15, 2015
  15. ↑ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "ESA Overview," accessed October 1, 2014
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "Endangered and threatened species in North Carolina," accessed July 6, 2015
  17. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Annual EPA Enforcement Results Highlight Focus on Major Environmental Violations," February 7, 2014
  18. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Accomplishments by EPA Region," May 12, 2014
  19. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Enforcement Annual Results for Fiscal Year 2012," accessed October 1, 2014
  20. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "EPA Enforcement in 2012 Protects Communities From Harmful Pollution," December 17, 2012
  21. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Basic Information on Mercury and Air Toxics Standards," accessed January 5, 2015
  22. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Cleaner Power Plants," accessed January 5, 2015
  23. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Mercury and Air Toxics Standards in North Carolina," accessed September 9, 2014
  24. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Benefits and Costs of Cleaning Up Toxic Air Pollution from Power Plants," accessed October 9, 2014
  25. ↑ NERA Economic Consulting, "An Economic Impact Analysis of EPA's Mercury and Air Toxics Standards Rule," March 1, 2012
  26. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "What is Superfund?" accessed September 9, 2014
  27. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Priorities List (NPL) of Superfund Sites," accessed October 7, 2014
  28. ↑ U.S. Government Accountability Office, "EPA's Estimated Costs to Remediate Existing Sites Exceed Current Funding Levels, and More Sites Are Expected to Be Added to the National Priorities List," accessed October 7, 2014
  29. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Estimate of National Economic Impacts of Superfund Sites," accessed September 12, 2014
  30. ↑ Property and Environment Research Center, "Superfund Follies, Part II," accessed October 7, 2014
  31. ↑ Property and Environment Research Center, "Superfund: The Shortcut That Failed (1996)," accessed October 7, 2014
  32. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Beneficial Effects of the Superfund Program," accessed September 12, 2014
  33. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "State Profiles and Energy Estimates," accessed October 13, 2014
  34. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Air Trends," accessed October 30, 2015
  35. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Basic Information - Ozone," accessed January 1, 2016
  36. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Carbon Monoxide," accessed October 26, 2015
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)," accessed October 26, 2015
  38. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Regional Trends in CO Levels," accessed October 23, 2015
  39. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Nitrogen dioxide," accessed October 26, 2015
  40. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Regional Trends in Nitrogen Dioxide Levels," accessed October 23, 2015
  41. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Ground Level Ozone," accessed October 26, 2015
  42. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Regional Trends in Ozone Levels ," accessed October 26, 2015
  43. ↑ North Carolina Office of Administrative Hearings, "Title 15A: Environment and Natural Resources," accessed December 16, 2014
  44. ↑ North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, "About DENR," accessed December 16, 2014
  45. ↑ North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, "About the Division of Air Quality," accessed December 16, 2014
  46. ↑ North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, "About the Division of Water Resources," accessed December 16, 2014
  47. ↑ North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, "About the Division of Coastal Management," accessed December 16, 2014
  48. ↑ North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, "Division of Waste Management," accessed December 16, 2014
  49. ↑ North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, "N.C. Division of Energy, Mineral and Land Resources," accessed December 16, 2014
  50. ↑ North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, "State Environmental Policy Act (SEPA) General Information," accessed April 13, 2015
  51. ↑ Eco-USA.net, "North Carolina Environmental Organizations," accessed December 8, 2014
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