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Historical Oregon environmental information, 1954-2016

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State environmental policy
U.S. environmental policy
Endangered species policy
State endangered species
Federal land policy
Environmental terms
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The historical environmental information below applies to prior years. For more current information regarding environmental policy in Oregon, see this article.

Land ownership

See also: Federal land policy and Federal land ownership by state

The federal government owned between 635 million and 640 million acres of land in 2012 (about 28 percent) of the 2.27 billion acres of land in the United States. Around 52 percent of federally owned acres were in 12 Western states—including Alaska, 61 percent of which was federally owned. In contrast, the federal government owned 4 percent of land in the other 38 states. Federal land policy is designed to manage minerals, oil and gas resources, timber, wildlife and fish, and other natural resources found on federal land. Land management policies are highly debated for their economic, environmental and social impacts. Additionally, the size of the federal estate and the acquisition of more federal land are major issues.[1][2]

According to the Congressional Research Service, Oregon spans 61.59 million acres. Of that total, 53.03 percent, or 32.66 million acres, belonged to the federal government as of 2012. More than 28 million acres in Oregon are not owned by the federal government, or 7.36 non-federal acres per capita. From 1990 to 2010, the federal government's land ownership in Washington increased by 603,427 acres.[1]

The table below shows federal land ownership in Oregon compared to neighboring states Washington and Idaho. The U.S. Forest Service more than 92 percent of federal land in Oregon (15.6 million acres). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which manages endangered species, owned more land in Oregon than Washington and Idaho combined.

Federal land ownership in Oregon and other states by agency
State
Agency Oregon Washington Idaho
Acres owned Percentage owned Acres owned Percentage owned Acres owned Percentage owned
U.S. Forest Service 15,687,556 92.20% 9,289,102 76.30% 20,465,014 62.71%
U.S. National Park Service 192,020 1.13% 1,833,697 15.06% 507,585 1.56%
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 482,694 2.84% 181,693 1.49% 48,947 0.15%
U.S. Bureau of Land Management 574,510 3.38% 429,156 3.53% 11,610,111 35.57%
U.S. Department of Defense 77,153 0.45% 440,166 3.62% 4,178 0.01%
Total federal land 17,013,933 100% 12,173,814 100% 32,635,835 100.00%
Source: Congressional Research Service, "Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data"

Land usage

Federal lands and Indian reservations in the state of Oregon by government agency (click on the image to enlarge)

Recreation

National parks in Oregon

Oregon has six National Park Service units, two national monuments, 13 national forests, 47 wilderness areas, one national historic site and two national historic trails. A study by the U.S. National Park Service found that 969,052 visitors attended Oregon's national parks and monuments and generated $67.4 million in visitor spending in 2013.[3]

State recreation lands

There are 197 state parks, recreation areas and trails in Oregon, which are listed in the table below.[4]

Economic impact of state lands
Oregon Coast Trail.

In December 2012, the Oregon Commission of Parks and Recreation reported the economic activity of visitors to the state's parks, trails and recreation areas. The commission studied the items that visitors purchased at parks and recreation areas, including food, fuel, activity fees, lodging and supplies. The study found that one dollar of state funding to parks and recreation areas generated around $17 in visitor spending at locations within 30 miles of a state park or trail. The figure is based on surveys taken in 2012. The study also found that visitor-generated economic activity totaled $735 million in 2012, or the equivalent of 11,600 full-time jobs. According to the 2012 report, the Oregon state park system breaks even every year. Each park visitor generates $0.47 for the commission. Out of all revenue generated by the state park system, 79 percent goes to general park services, 12 percent goes to "major maintenance," and 9 percent goes to land enhancement and acquisition. Of the revenue that goes back into the state park system's general operations, around half of the revenue goes toward workforce compensation.[5]

Economic activity on federal lands

Oil and gas activity

See also: BLM oil and gas leases by state

Private mining companies, including oil and natural gas companies, can apply for leases from the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to explore and produce energy on federal land. The company seeking a lease must nominate the land for oil and gas exploration to the BLM, which evaluates and approves the lease. The BLM state offices make leasing decisions based on their land use plans, which contain information on the land's resources and the potential environmental impact of oil or gas exploration. If federal lands are approved for leasing, the BLM requires an application from the company containing information on how the exploration, drilling and production will be conducted. Afterward, the BLM will produce an environmental analysis and a list of requirements before work on the land can begin. The agency also inspects the companies' drilling and producing on the leased lands.[6]

In 2013, there were 47,427 active leases covering 36.09 million acres of federal land nationwide. Of that total, 112 leases (0.24 percent of all leases), covering 188,391 acres (0.52 percent of all leased land in 2013), were in Oregon. In 2013, out of 3,770 new drilling leases approved nationwide by the BLM for oil and gas exploration, no leases were in Oregon.[7][8][9][10][11]

The table below shows how Oregon compared to neighboring states in oil and gas permits on BLM-managed lands in 2013. Oregon had more active leases and acres under lease than Idaho and Washington but fewer than California in 2013.

Oil and gas leasing on BLM lands by state
State Active permits on BLM lands (FY 2013) Total acres under lease (FY 2013) State percentage of total permits State percentage of total acres
Oregon 112 188,391 0.24% 0.52%
California 600 239,071 1.27% 0.66%
Idaho 4 7,355 0.01% 0.02%
Washington 2 3,804 0.00% 0.01%
Total United States 47,427 permits 36,092,482 acres - -
Source: U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Oil and Gas Statistics"

Grazing permits

See also: Grazing permits on federal land
Sheep grazing on BLM lands in Worland, Wyoming in 1940

The U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages livestock grazing on 155 million acres of its public lands. Nationally, the BLM oversees about 18,000 permits and leases that allow ranchers to graze their livestock, mostly sheep and cows, on BLM-managed lands. The permits and leases overseen by the BLM are valid for 10 years and the fees are based on the number of animals the rancher has on the land. To track these animals the BLM created what are called Animal Unit Months (AUMs), or "the amount of forage needed to sustain one cow, five sheep, or five goats for a month." Since 1954, grazing on public lands has declined, from 18.2 million AUMs to 7.9 million AUMs in 2013. Holding a grazing permit requires the applicant to own or control the property used for grazing. The applicant may also offer other privately owned property used for grazing by submitting a separate application. The terms and conditions in a grazing permit control how livestock must be used on BLM lands.[12][13][14]

The table compares the grazing permits in the 10 states where permits are issued.[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]

Grazing on BLM lands (March 2011)
State BLM land (acres) Grazing allotments Grazing permits Animal unit months (AUMs) of livestock use
Oregon 16,134,191 N/A 753 960,288
Washington 429,156 N/A 266 (leases) 32,976
Arizona 12,203,495 824 759 659,990
Alaska 72,958,757 15 N/A N/A
California 15,306,243 699 572 525,000
Colorado 8,332,001 2,500 1,500 N/A
Idaho 11,610,111 N/A 199 832,000
Nevada 47,805,923 745 635 1,100,000
South Dakota 274,437 504 N/A 73,800
Utah 22,854,937 1,410 1,462 1,300,000
Source: U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Fact Sheet on the BLM’s Management of Livestock Grazing"

Payments in lieu of taxes

See also: Payments in lieu of taxes

Since local governments cannot collect taxes on federally owned property, the U.S. Department of the Interior issues payments to local governments to replace lost property tax revenue from federal land. The payments, known as "Payments in Lieu of Taxes" (PILTs), are typically used for funding services such as fire departments, police protection, school construction and roads.[25]

The table below shows PILTs for Oregon compared to neighboring states between 2011 and 2013. Oregon received the fewest PILTs in 2013 compared to neighboring states.

Total PILTs for Oregon and neighboring states
State FY 2011 FY 2012 FY 2013 State's percentage of 2013 total
Oregon $13,062,332 $14,004,966 $15,578,762 3.88%
California $38,025,813 $40,272,053 $41,445,228 10.32%
Idaho $25,592,241 $26,560,218 $26,326,163 6.55%
Washington $13,843,603 $15,340,025 $17,222,833 4.29%
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, "PILT"

Legislation and regulation

Federal laws

Clean Air Act

The federal Clean Air Act requires each state to meet federal standards for air pollution. Under the act, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency oversees national air quality standards aimed at limiting pollutants from chemical plants, steel mills, utilities, and industrial factories. Individual states can enact stricter air standards if they choose, though each state must adhere to the EPA's minimum pollution standards. States implement federal air standards through a state implementation plan (SIP), which must be approved by the EPA.[26]

Clean Water Act

The federal Clean Water Act is meant to address and maintain the physical, chemical, and biological status of the waters of the United States. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates water pollution sources and provides financial assistance to states and municipalities for water quality programs.[27]

According to research done by The New York Times using annual averages from 2004 to 2007, Oregon had 374.5 facilities that were regulated annually by the Clean Water Act. An average of 26.5 facilities violated the act annually from 2004 to 2007 in Oregon, and the EPA enforced the act an average of 17.3 times a year in the state. This information, published by the Times in 2009, was the most recent information on the subject as of October 2014.[28]

The table below shows how Oregon compared to neighboring states in The New York Times study, including the number of regulated facilities, facility violations, and the annual average of enforcement actions against regulated facilities between 2004 and 2007.

New York Times Clean Water Act study, 2004-2007
State Number of facilities regulated Facility violations Annual average enforcement actions
Oregon 374.5 26.5 17.3
California 2,161 579.5 142.5
Idaho 214.5 126.3 4.2
Washington 435.3 195.4 16.8
Source: The New York Times, "Clean Water Act Violations: The Enforcement Record"

Endangered Species Act

The federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 provides for the identification, listing, and protection of both threatened and endangered species and their habitats. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the law was designed to prevent the extinction of vulnerable plant and animal species through the development of recovery plans and the protection of critical habitats. ESA administration and enforcement are the responsibility of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service.[29][30]

Federally listed species in Oregon

There were 63 endangered and threatened animal and plant species believed to or known to occur in Oregon as of July 2015.

The table below lists the 43 endangered and threatened animal species believed to or known to occur in the state. When an animal species has the word "Entire" after its name, that species will be found all throughout the state.[31]

The table below lists the 20 endangered and threatened plant species believed to or known to occur in the state.[31]

State-listed species in Oregon

Under Oregon law, the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife manages its own list of endangered and threatened species. As of October 2014, when the list was revised, Oregon had 32 endangered and threatened species on its state list. Of those species, five appeared exclusively on the Oregon list. The complete list of Oregon's protected species can be found here.[32]

Enforcement

See also: Enforcement at the EPA

Oregon is part of the EPA's Region 10, which includes Alaska, Washington and Idaho.[33]

The EPA enforces federal standards on air, water and hazardous chemicals. The EPA can engage in its own administrative action against private industries, or it can bring civil and/or criminal lawsuits against them. The goal of environmental law enforcement is usually the collection of penalties and fines for violations of laws like the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act. In 2013, the EPA estimated that 31.9 million pounds of pollution, which includes air pollution, water contaminants, and hazardous chemicals, were "reduced, treated or eliminated" and 45.8 million cubic yards of soil and water were cleaned in Region 10. Additionally, 174 enforcement cases were initiated, and 177 enforcement cases were concluded in fiscal year 2013. In fiscal year 2012, the EPA collected $252 million in criminal fines and civil penalties from the private sector nationwide. In fiscal year 2013, the EPA collected $1.1 billion in criminal fines and civil penalties from the private sector nationwide, primarily due to the $1 billion settlement from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill along the Gulf Coast in 2010. The EPA only publishes nationwide data and does not provide state or region-specific information on the amount of fines and penalties it collects during a fiscal year.[34][35][36][37]

Mercury and air toxics standards

See also: Mercury and air toxics standards
The EPA on mercury capture systems

The EPA enforces mercury and air toxics standards (MATS), which are national limits on mercury, chromium, nickel, arsenic and acidic gases from coal- and oil-fired power plants. Power plants are required to have certain technologies to limit these pollutants. In December 2011, the EPA issued greater restrictions on the amount of mercury and other toxic pollutants produced by power plants. As of 2014, approximately 580 power plants, including 1,400 oil- and coal-fired electric-generating units, fell under the federal rule. The EPA has claimed that power plants account for 50 percent of mercury emissions, 75 percent of acidic gases and around 20 to 60 percent of toxic metal emissions in the United States. All coal- and oil-fired power plants with a capacity of 25 megawatts or greater are subject to the standards. The EPA has claimed that the standards will "prevent up to 12 premature deaths in Oregon while creating up to $97 million in health benefits in 2016."[38][39][40]

In 2014, the EPA released a study examining the economic, environmental, and health impacts of the MATS standards nationwide. Other organizations have released their own analyses about the effects of the MATS standards. Below is a summary of the studies on MATS and their effects as of November 2014.

EPA study
In 2014, the EPA reported that its MATS rule would prevent roughly 11,000 premature deaths and 130,000 asthma attacks nationwide. The agency also anticipated between $37 billion and $90 billion in "improved air quality benefits" annually. For the rule's cost, the EPA estimated that annual compliance fees for coal- and oil-fired power plants would reach $9.6 billion.[41]

NERA study
A 2012 study published by NERA Economic Consulting, a global consultancy group, reported that annual compliance costs in the electricity sector would total $10 billion in 2015 and nearly $100 billion cumulatively up through 2034. The same study found that the net impact of the MATS rule in 2015 would be the income equivalent of 180,000 fewer jobs. This net impact took into account the job gains associated with the building and refitting of power plants with new technology.[42]

Superfund sites

The EPA established the Superfund program as part of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980.The Superfund program focuses on uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites nationwide. The EPA inspects waste sites and establishes cleanup plans for them. The federal government can compel the private entities responsible for a waste site to clean the site or face penalties. If the federal government cleans a waste site, it can force the responsible party to reimburse the EPA or other federal agencies for the cleanup's cost. Superfund sites include oil refineries, smelting facilities, mines and other industrial areas. As of October 2014, there were 1,322 Superfund sites nationwide. A total of 75 Superfund sites reside in Region 10, with an average of 18.75 sites per state. There were 13 Superfund sites in Oregon as of October 2014.[43][44]

Economic impact
EPA studies
The Environmental Protection Agency publishes studies to evaluate the impact and benefits of its policies. Other studies may dispute the agency's findings or state the costs of its policies.

According to the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), an independent federal agency, the Superfund program received an average of almost $1.2 billion annually in appropriated funds between the years 1981 and 2009, adjusted for inflation. The GAO estimated that the trust fund of the Superfund program decreased from $5 billion in 1997 to $137 million in 2009. The Superfund program received an additional $600 million in federal funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, also known as the stimulus bill.[45]

In March 2011, the EPA claimed that the agency's Superfund program produced economic benefits nationwide. Because Superfund sites are added and removed from a prioritized list on a regular basis, the total number of Superfund sites since the program's inception in 1980 is unknown. Based on a selective study of 373 Superfund sites cleaned up since the program's inception, the EPA estimated these economic benefits include the creation of 2,240 private businesses, $32.6 billion in annual sales from new businesses, 70,144 jobs and $4.9 billion in annual employment income.[46]

Other studies were published detailing the costs associated with the Superfund program. According to the Property and Environment Research Center, a free market-oriented policy group based in Montana, the EPA spent over $35 billion on the Superfund program between 1980 and 2005.[47][48]

Environmental impact

In March 2011, the EPA claimed that the Superfund program resulted in healthier environments surrounding former waste sites. An agency study analyzed the program's health and ecological benefits and focused on former landfills, mining areas, and abandoned dumps that were cleaned up and renovated. As of January 2009, out of the approximately 500 former Superfund sites used for the study, roughly 10 percent became recreational or commercial sites. Other former Superfund sites in the study became wetlands, meadows, streams, scenic trails, parks, and habitats for plants and animals.[49]


Carbon emissions

See also: Climate change, Greenhouse gas and Greenhouse gas emissions by state

In 2011, Oregon ranked 39th nationwide in CO2 emissions, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration. Oregon's CO2 emissions rose steeply twice during the 1990s, between 1990 and 1994 and again between 1997 and 1999. Emissions hit 43 million metric tons of CO2 in 1999, the highest emissions in Oregon up to that point. Emissions fluctuated during the 2000s before peaking in 2007 when the state emitted 43 million metric tons of CO2. Since 2007, the state's emissions have declined before hitting 39 million metric tons of CO2 in 2011. The transportation sector was the largest emitter of carbon dioxide in Oregon and accounted for 56 percent of the state's emissions in 2011. The electric power sector was the next largest emitter followed by the industrial sector, the residential sector and the commercial sector.[50]

Carbon dioxide emissions in Oregon (in million metric tons). Data was compiled by the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
Carbon dioxide emissions in Oregon by sector

Pollution from energy use

Note: Annual data on nitrogen dioxide levels in the Northwest between 2000 and 2014 are unavailable.

Pollution from energy use includes three common air pollutants: carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone. These and other pollutants are regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) through the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, which are federal standards limiting pollutants that can harm human health in significant concentrations. Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is also regulated by the EPA, but it is excluded here since it is not one of the pollutants originally regulated under the Clean Air Act for its harm to human health.

Industries and motor vehicles emit carbon monoxide directly when they use energy. Nitrogen dioxide forms from the emissions of automobiles, power plants and other sources. Ground level ozone (also known as tropospheric ozone) is not emitted but is the product of chemical reactions between nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic chemicals. The EPA tracks these and other pollutants from monitoring sites across the United States. The data below shows nationwide and regional trends for carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone between 2000 and 2014. States with consistent climates and weather patterns were grouped together by the EPA to make up each region.[51][52]

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas produced from combustion processes, e.g., when gasoline reacts rapidly with oxygen and releases exhaust; the majority of national CO emissions come from mobile sources like automobiles. CO can reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and at very high levels can cause death. CO concentrations are measured in parts per million (ppm). Since 1994, federal law prohibits CO concentrations from exceeding 9 ppm during an eight-hour period more than once per year.[53][54]

The chart below compares the annual average concentration of carbon monoxide in the Northern Rockies/Plains and Northwestern regions of the United States between 2000 and 2014. States with consistent climates and weather patterns are grouped together by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which collects these data, to make up each region. Each line represents the annual average of all the data collected from pollution monitoring sites in each region. In the Northwest, there were three monitoring sites throughout three states, compared to one monitoring site for five states in the Northern Rockies/Plains. In 2000, the average concentration of carbon monoxide was 3.93 ppm in the Northwest, compared to 5.5 ppm in the Northern Rockies/Plains. In 2014, the average concentration of carbon monoxide was 1.73 ppm in the Northwest, a decrease of 55.9 percent from 2000, compared to 2.6 ppm in the Northern Rockies/Plains, a decrease of 52.7 percent from 2000.[55]

NW-Rockies regional comparison.png

Ground-level ozone

Ground-level ozone is created by chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in sunlight. Major sources of NOx and VOCs include industrial facilities, electric utilities, automobiles, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents. Ground-level ozone can produce health problems for children, the elderly, and asthmatics. Since 2008, federal law has prohibited ozone concentrations from exceeding a daily eight-hour average of 75 parts per billion (ppb). Beginning in 2025, federal law will prohibit ground-level ozone concentrations from exceeding a daily eight-hour average of 70 ppb.[54][56]

The chart below compares the daily eight-hour average concentration of ground-level ozone in the Northern Rockies/Plains and Northwestern regions of the United States between 2000 and 2014. In the chart below, ozone concentrations are measured in parts per million (ppm), which can be converted to parts per billion (ppb). In the Northern Rockies/Plains, there were 12 monitoring sites throughout five states, compared to 17 monitoring sites throughout three states in the Northwest. In 2000, the daily eight-hour average concentration of ozone was 0.0598 ppm, or 59.8 ppb in the Northern Rockies/Plains, compared to 0.0599 ppm, or 59.9 ppb in the Northwest. In 2014, the daily eight-hour average concentration of ozone was 0.0578 ppm, or 57.8 ppb in the Northern Rockies/Plains, a decrease of 3.3 percent from 2000, compared to 0.059 ppm, or 56.9 ppb in the Northwest, a decrease of 5 percent from 2000.[57]

NW-Rockies regional comparison.png

State laws

The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality implements the state's environmental laws, which make up Chapter 340 of the Oregon Administrative Rules. The full text of the rules and regulations can be found here.

Enforcement

The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) oversees environmental policy and the following environmental programs:[58]

  • The Air Quality Program consists of air quality monitoring and permit programs for large sources of air pollution.[59]
  • The Land Quality Program consists of waste management and the oversight of underground storage tanks used for containing hazardous wastes.[60]
  • The Water Quality Program consists of water quality management and the regulation of sewage treatment systems and industrial sources of wastewater.[61]

Historical budget information

The table below shows state budget figures for Oregon's environmental and natural resource departments compared to neighboring states.

Total state natural resource expenditures by state
State Departments/Divisions FY 2013 FY 2012 FY 2011
Oregon* Environmental Quality; Fish and Wildlife; Parks and Recreation - $874,090,275* $842,797,961*
California Environmental Protection Agency; Natural Resources $6,801,000,000 $6,537,000,000 $6,793,000,000
Idaho Environmental Quality; Fish and Game; Lands; Parks and Recreation; Water Resources $254,231,700 $236,704,800 $240,448,300
Washington* Natural Resources; Ecology $780,033,000* $695,409,000*
Sources: Oregon Chief Financial Office, California Department of Finance, Idaho Division of Financial Management, Washington State Legislature
*This denotes a biennium state budget's figures.

Major groups

Below is a list of environmental advocacy organizations in Oregon. A complete list of environmental groups by state can be accessed on the website Eco-USA.[62]

Ballot measures

Voting on the Environment
Environment.jpg
Ballot Measures
By state
By year
Not on ballot


Below is a list of ballot measures relating to environmental issues in Oregon.

Recent news

The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms Oregon environmental policy. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

Historical Oregon environmental information, 1954-2016 - Google News

See also

External links

Footnotes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Congressional Research Service, "Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data," accessed September 15, 2014
  2. ↑ U.S. Congressional Research Service, "Federal Lands and Natural Resources: Overview and Selected Issues for the 113th Congress," December 8, 2014
  3. ↑ U.S. National Park Service, "2013 National Park Visitor Spending Effects Report," accessed October 14, 2014
  4. ↑ Oregon Department of Parks and Recreation, "State Parks and Trails," accessed November 25, 2014
  5. ↑ Oregon Parks and Recreation Department, "State Park System Plan (2012)," December 1, 2012
  6. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Oil and Gas Lease Sales," accessed October 20, 2014
  7. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Number of Acres Leased During the Fiscal Year," accessed October 20, 2014
  8. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Total Number of Leases in Effect," accessed October 20, 2014
  9. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Summary of Onshore Oil and Gas Statistics," accessed October 20, 2014
  10. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Number of Drilling Permits Approved by Fiscal Year on Federal Lands," accessed October 20, 2014
  11. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Total Number of Acres Under Lease As of the Last Day of the Fiscal Year," accessed October 22, 2014
  12. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Grazing Permits," accessed October 6, 2014
  13. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Rangeland Program Glossary," March 4, 2011
  14. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Fact Sheet on the BLM’s Management of Livestock Grazing," March 28, 2014
  15. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Grazing and Rangeland Management," December 14, 2012
  16. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Grazing and Rangeland Management," December 14, 2012
  17. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Grazing and Rangeland Management," December 14, 2012
  18. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Grazing and Rangeland Management," December 14, 2012 (dead link)
  19. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Grazing and Rangeland Management," December 14, 2012
  20. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Grazing and Rangeland Management," December 14, 2012
  21. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Grazing and Rangeland Management," December 14, 2012
  22. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Grazing and Rangeland Management," December 14, 2012 (dead link)
  23. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Grazing and Rangeland Management," December 14, 2012
  24. ↑ U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Grazing and Rangeland Management," December 14, 2012 (dead link)
  25. ↑ U.S. Department of the Interior, "PILT," accessed October 4, 2014
  26. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Understanding the Clean Air Act," accessed September 12, 2014
  27. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Clean Water Act (CWA) Overview," accessed September 19, 2014
  28. ↑ The New York Times, "Clean Water Act Violations: The Enforcement Record," September 13, 2009
  29. ↑ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "Improving ESA Implementation," accessed May 15, 2015
  30. ↑ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "ESA Overview," accessed October 1, 2014
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "Endangered and threatened species in Oregon," accessed July 6, 2015
  32. ↑ Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, "Endangered and threatened species list (October 2014)," accessed July 31, 2015
  33. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "EPA Region 10 (Pacific Northwest)," accessed November 19, 2014
  34. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Annual EPA Enforcement Results Highlight Focus on Major Environmental Violations," February 7, 2014
  35. ↑ Environmental Protection Agency, "Accomplishments by EPA Region (2013)," May 12, 2014
  36. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Enforcement Annual Results for Fiscal Year 2012," accessed October 1, 2014
  37. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "EPA Enforcement in 2012 Protects Communities From Harmful Pollution," December 17, 2012
  38. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Basic Information on Mercury and Air Toxics Standards," accessed January 5, 2015
  39. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Cleaner Power Plants," accessed January 5, 2015
  40. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Mercury and Air Toxics Standards in Utah," accessed September 9, 2014
  41. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Benefits and Costs of Cleaning Up Toxic Air Pollution from Power Plants," accessed October 9, 2014
  42. ↑ NERA Economic Consulting, "An Economic Impact Analysis of EPA's Mercury and Air Toxics Standards Rule," March 1, 2012
  43. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "What is Superfund?" accessed September 9, 2014
  44. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Priorities List (NPL) of Superfund Sites," accessed October 7, 2014
  45. ↑ U.S. Government Accountability Office, "EPA's Estimated Costs to Remediate Existing Sites Exceed Current Funding Levels, and More Sites Are Expected to Be Added to the National Priorities List," accessed October 7, 2014
  46. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Estimate of National Economic Impacts of Superfund Sites," accessed September 12, 2014
  47. ↑ Property and Environment Research Center, "Superfund Follies, Part II," accessed October 7, 2014
  48. ↑ Property and Environment Research Center, "Superfund: The Shortcut That Failed (1996)," accessed October 7, 2014
  49. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Beneficial Effects of the Superfund Program," accessed September 12, 2014
  50. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "State Profiles and Energy Estimates," accessed October 13, 2014
  51. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Air Trends," accessed October 30, 2015
  52. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Basic Information - Ozone," accessed January 1, 2016
  53. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Carbon Monoxide," accessed October 26, 2015
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)," accessed October 26, 2015
  55. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Regional Trends in CO Levels," accessed October 23, 2015
  56. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Ground Level Ozone," accessed October 26, 2015
  57. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Regional Trends in Ozone Levels ," accessed October 26, 2015
  58. ↑ Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, "Rules and Regulations (DEQ)," accessed November 25, 2014
  59. ↑ Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, "DEQ Air Quality," accessed November 25, 2014
  60. ↑ Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, "DEQ Land Quality," accessed November 25, 2014
  61. ↑ Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, "DEQ Water Quality," accessed November 25, 2014
  62. ↑ Eco-USA.net, "Oregon Environmental Organizations," November 25, 2014
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