Historical Pennsylvania environmental information, 1971-2016

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State environmental policy
U.S. environmental policy
Endangered species policy
State endangered species
Federal land policy
Environmental terms

The historical environmental information below applies to prior years. For more current information regarding environmental policy in Pennsylvania, see this article.

Land ownership

See also: Federal land policy and Federal land ownership by state

The federal government owned between 635 million and 640 million acres of land in 2012 (about 28 percent) of the 2.27 billion acres of land in the United States. Around 52 percent of federally owned acres were in 12 Western states—including Alaska, 61 percent of which was federally owned. In contrast, the federal government owned 4 percent of land in the other 38 states. Federal land policy is designed to manage minerals, oil and gas resources, timber, wildlife and fish, and other natural resources found on federal land. Land management policies are highly debated for their economic, environmental and social impacts. Additionally, the size of the federal estate and the acquisition of more federal land are major issues.

According to the Congressional Research Service, Pennsylvania spans 28.8 million acres. Of that total, 2.14 percent, or 616,896 acres, belonged to the federal government as of 2012. More than 28.2 million acres in Pennsylvania are not owned by the federal government, or 12.76 non-federal acres per capita. From 1990 to 2010, the federal government's land ownership in Pennsylvania increased by 5,647 acres.

The table below shows federal land ownership in Pennsylvania compared to its neighbor, Maryland, and a Western state, Utah. More than 80 percent of federal land in Pennsylvania was owned by the U.S. Forest Service. Maryland had no land owned by the U.S. Forest Service. Over 55 percent of Maryland's federal land is owned by the U.S. Department of Defense (108,391 acres) while the Department of Defense owned 43,502 acres in Pennsylvania.

Federal land ownership in Pennsylvania and other states by agency
State
Agency	Pennsylvania		Maryland		Utah
	Acres owned	Percentage owned	Acres owned	Percentage owned	Acres owned	Percentage owned
U.S. Forest Service	513,418	83.23%	0	0.00%	8,207,415	23.43%
U.S. National Park Service	50,014	8.11%	40,543	20.69%	2,097,106	5.99%
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service	9,962	1.61%	46,504	23.73%	107,885	0.31%
U.S. Bureau of Land Management	0	0.00%	548	0.28%	22,854,937	65.24%
U.S. Department of Defense	43,502	7.05%	108,391	55.31%	1,766,260	5.04%
Total federal land	616,896	100%	195,986	100%	35,033,603	100%
Source: Congressional Research Service, "Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data"

Land usage

Recreation

National parks in Pennsylvania

Pennsylvania has 18 National Park Service units, one national monument, one national forest, two wilderness areas, one national recreation area, seven national historic sites and two national historic trails. A study by the U.S. National Park Service found that 9.1 million visitors attended Pennsylvania's national parks and monuments and generated $477.2 million in visitor spending in 2013.

Federal lands and Indian reservations in Pennsylvania by government agency (click the image to enlarge).

State recreation lands

Pennsylvania's state parks are operated by the state Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. The first state park opened in Valley Forge in 1879. As of 2011, there were 120 state parks in Pennsylvania.

Economic activity on federal lands

Oil and gas activity

See also: BLM oil and gas leases by state

Private mining companies, including oil and natural gas companies, can apply for leases from the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to explore and produce energy on federal land. The company seeking a lease must nominate the land for oil and gas exploration to the BLM, which evaluates and approves the lease. The BLM state offices make leasing decisions based on its land use plans, which contain information on the land's resources and the potential environmental impact of oil or gas exploration. If federal lands are approved for leasing, the BLM requires an application containing information on how the exploration, drilling and production will be conducted by the company. Afterward, the BLM will produce an environmental analysis and a list of requirements before energy exploration can begin. The agency also inspects the companies' drilling and producing on the leased lands.

In 2013, there were 47,427 active leases covering 36.09 million acres of federal land nationwide. Of that total, 69 leases (0.15 percent of all leases), covering 4,761 million acres (0.01 percent of all leased land in 2013), were in Pennsylvania. In 2013, none of the 3,770 new drilling leases approved nationwide by the BLM for oil and gas exploration were in Pennsylvania.

The table below shows how Pennsylvania compared to neighboring states in oil and gas permits on BLM-managed lands in 2013. Pennsylvania had more active leases and acres under lease than Maryland and New York but fewer than Ohio.

Oil and gas leasing on BLM lands by state
State	Active permits on BLM lands (FY 2013)	Total acres under lease (FY 2013)	State percentage of total permits	State percentage of total acres
Pennsylvania	69	4,761	0.15%	0.01%
Maryland	4	2,632	0.01%	0.01%
New York	5	1,183	0.01%	0.00%
Ohio	267	57,886	0.56%	0.16%
Total United States	47,427 permits	36,092,482 acres	-	-
Source: U.S. Bureau of Land Management, "Oil and Gas Statistics"

Payments in lieu of taxes

See also: Payments in lieu of taxes

Since local governments cannot collect taxes on federally owned property, the U.S. Department of the Interior issues payments to local governments to replace lost property tax revenue from federal land. The payments, known as "Payments in Lieu of Taxes" (PILTs), are typically used for funding services such as fire departments, police protection, school construction and roads.

The table below shows PILTs for Pennsylvania compared to neighboring states between 2011 and 2013. Pennsylvania received more PILTs than neighboring states between 2011 and 2013.

Total PILTs for Pennsylvania and neighboring states
State	FY 2011	FY 2012	FY 2013	State's percentage of 2013 total
Pennsylvania	$539,161	$610,842	$685,575	0.17%
Maryland	$99,852	$102,393	$99,591	0.02%
New York	$127,278	$152,301	$144,520	0.04%
Ohio	$521,039	$521,866	$554,833	0.14%
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, "PILT"

Legislation and regulation

Federal laws

Clean Air Act

The federal Clean Air Act requires each state to meet federal standards for air pollution. Under the act, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency oversees national air quality standards aimed at limiting pollutants from chemical plants, steel mills, utilities, and industrial factories. Individual states can enact stricter air standards if they choose, though each state must adhere to the EPA's minimum pollution standards. States implement federal air standards through a state implementation plan (SIP), which must be approved by the EPA.

Clean Water Act

The federal Clean Water Act is meant to address and maintain the physical, chemical, and biological status of the waters of the United States. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates water pollution sources and provides financial assistance to states and municipalities for water quality programs.

According to research done by The New York Times using annual averages from 2004 to 2007, Pennsylvania had 4,355 facilities that were regulated annually by the Clean Water Act. An average of 392.2 facilities violated the act annually from 2004 to 2007 in Pennsylvania, and the EPA enforced the act an average of 20.3 times a year in the state. This information, published by the Times in 2009, was the most recent information on the subject as of October 2014.

The table below shows how Pennsylvania compared to neighboring states in The New York Times study, including the number of facilities regulated, facility violations, and the annual average enforcement actions against these facilities between 2004 and 2007.

New York Times Clean Water Act study, 2004-2007
State	Number of facilities regulated	Facility violations	Annual average enforcement actions
Pennsylvania	4,355	392.2	20.3
Maryland	612.5	154.8	55.8
New York	1,674.8	855.7	55.1
Ohio	3,114.80	1,939.70	19.2
Source: The New York Times, "Clean Water Act Violations: The Enforcement Record"

Endangered Species Act

The federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 provides for the identification, listing, and protection of both threatened and endangered species and their habitats. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the law was designed to prevent the extinction of vulnerable plant and animal species through the development of recovery plans and the protection of critical habitats. ESA administration and enforcement are the responsibility of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service.

Federally listed species in Pennsylvania

There were 15 endangered and threatened animal and plant species believed to or known to occur in Pennsylvania as of July 2015.

The table below lists the 13 endangered and threatened animal species believed to or known to occur in the state. When an animal species has the word "Entire" after its name, that species will be found all throughout the state.

Endangered animal species in Pennsylvania
Status	Species
Endangered	Bat, Indiana (Myotis sodalis)
Threatened	Bat, Northern long-eared (Myotis septentrionalis)
Endangered	Bean, rayed (Villosa fabalis)
Endangered	Clubshell (Pleurobema clava)
Threatened	Knot, red (Calidris canutus rufa)
Endangered	Mussel, sheepnose (Plethobasus cyphyus)
Endangered	Mussel, snuffbox (Epioblasma triquetra)
Endangered	Plover, piping Great Lakes watershed (Charadrius melodus)
Threatened	Rabbitsfoot Rabbitsfoot (Quadrula cylindrica cylindrica)
Endangered	Riffleshell, northern (Epioblasma torulosa rangiana)
Endangered	Sturgeon, shortnose (Acipenser brevirostrum)
Threatened	Turtle, bog (=Muhlenberg) northern (Clemmys muhlenbergii)
Endangered	Wedgemussel, dwarf (Alasmidonta heterodon)
Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "Endangered and threatened species in Pennsylvania"

The table below lists the two endangered and threatened plant species believed to or known to occur in the state.

Endangered plant species in Pennsylvania
Status	Species
Endangered	Bulrush, Northeastern (Scirpus ancistrochaetus)
Threatened	Pogonia, small whorled (Isotria medeoloides)
Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "Endangered and threatened species in Pennsylvania"

Enforcement

See also: Enforcement at the EPA

Pennsylvania is part of the EPA's Region 3, which includes Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia and the District of Columbia.

The EPA enforces federal standards on air, water and hazardous chemicals. The EPA can engage in its own administrative action against private industries, or can bring civil and/or criminal lawsuits against private industries with the goal of collecting penalties and fines for violations of federal environmental laws, including the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act. In 2013, the EPA estimated that 416.9 million pounds of pollution, which includes air pollution, water contaminants, and hazardous chemicals, were "reduced, treated or eliminated" and 5.8 million cubic yards of soil and water were cleaned in Region 3. Additionally, 184 enforcement cases were initiated, and 182 enforcement cases were concluded in fiscal year 2013. In fiscal year 2012, the EPA collected $252 million in criminal fines and civil penalties from the private sector nationwide. In fiscal year 2013, the EPA collected $1.1 billion in criminal fines and civil penalties from the private sector nationwide, primarily due to the $1 billion settlement from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill along the Gulf Coast in 2010. The EPA only publishes nationwide data and does not provide state or region-specific information on the amount of fines and penalties it collects during a fiscal year.

Mercury and air toxics standards

See also: Mercury and air toxics standards

The EPA on mercury capture systems

The EPA enforces mercury and air toxics standards (MATS), which are national limits on mercury, chromium, nickel, arsenic and acidic gases from coal- and oil-fired power plants. Power plants are required to have certain technologies to limit these pollutants. In December 2011, the EPA issued greater restrictions on the amount of mercury and other toxic pollutants produced by power plants. As of 2014, approximately 580 power plants, including 1,400 oil- and coal-fired electric-generating units, fell under the federal rule. The EPA has claimed that power plants account for 50 percent of mercury emissions, 75 percent of acidic gases and around 20 to 60 percent of toxic metal emissions in the United States. All coal- and oil-fired power plants with a capacity of 25 megawatts or greater are subject to the standards. The EPA has claimed that the standards would "prevent up to 530 premature deaths in Pennsylvania while creating up to $4.4 billion in health benefits in 2016."

In 2014, the EPA released a study examining the economic, environmental, and health impacts of the MATS standards nationwide. Other organizations have released their own analyses about the effects of the MATS standards. Below is a summary of the studies on MATS and their effects as of November 2014.

EPA study
In 2014, the EPA reported that its MATS rule would prevent roughly 11,000 premature deaths and 130,000 asthma attacks nationwide. The agency also anticipated between $37 billion and $90 billion in "improved air quality benefits" annually. For the rule's cost, the EPA estimated that annual compliance fees for coal- and oil-fired power plants would reach $9.6 billion.

NERA study
A 2012 study published by NERA Economic Consulting, a global consultancy group, reported that annual compliance costs in the electricity sector would total $10 billion in 2015 and nearly $100 billion cumulatively up through 2034. The same study found that the net impact of the MATS rule in 2015 would be the income equivalent of 180,000 fewer jobs. This net impact took into account the job gains associated with the building and refitting of power plants with new technology.

Superfund sites

The EPA established the Superfund program as part of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980.The Superfund program focuses on uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites nationwide. The EPA inspects waste sites and establishes cleanup plans for them. The federal government can compel the private entities responsible for a waste site to clean the site or face penalties. If the federal government cleans a waste site, it can force the responsible party to reimburse the EPA or other federal agencies for the cleanup's cost. Superfund sites include oil refineries, smelting facilities, mines and other industrial areas. As of October 2014, there were 1,322 Superfund sites nationwide. A total of 169 Superfund sites resided in Region 3, with an average of 28 sites per state. There were 95 Superfund sites in Pennsylvania as of October 2014.

Economic impact

EPA studies
The Environmental Protection Agency publishes studies to evaluate the impact and benefits of its policies. Other studies may dispute the agency's findings or state the costs of its policies.

According to the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), an independent federal agency, the Superfund program received an average of almost $1.2 billion annually in appropriated funds between the years 1981 and 2009, adjusted for inflation. The GAO estimated that the trust fund of the Superfund program decreased from $5 billion in 1997 to $137 million in 2009. The Superfund program received an additional $600 million in federal funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, also known as the stimulus bill.

In March 2011, the EPA claimed that the agency's Superfund program produced economic benefits nationwide. Because Superfund sites are added and removed from a prioritized list on a regular basis, the total number of Superfund sites since the program's inception in 1980 is unknown. Based on a selective study of 373 Superfund sites cleaned up since the program's inception, the EPA estimated these economic benefits include the creation of 2,240 private businesses, $32.6 billion in annual sales from new businesses, 70,144 jobs and $4.9 billion in annual employment income.

Other studies were published detailing the costs associated with the Superfund program. According to the Property and Environment Research Center, a free market-oriented policy group based in Montana, the EPA spent over $35 billion on the Superfund program between 1980 and 2005.

Environmental impact

In March 2011, the EPA claimed that the Superfund program resulted in healthier environments surrounding former waste sites. An agency study analyzed the program's health and ecological benefits and focused on former landfills, mining areas, and abandoned dumps that were cleaned up and renovated. As of January 2009, out of the approximately 500 former Superfund sites used for the study, roughly 10 percent became recreational or commercial sites. Other former Superfund sites in the study are now used as wetlands, meadows, streams, scenic trails, parks and habitats for plants and animals.

Carbon dioxide emissions in Pennsylvania (in million metric tons). Data was compiled by the U.S. Energy Information Administration.

Carbon dioxide emissions in Pennsylvania by sector

Pollution from energy use

Pollution from energy use includes three common air pollutants: carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone. These and other pollutants are regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) through the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, which are federal standards limiting pollutants that can harm human health in significant concentrations. Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is also regulated by the EPA, but it is excluded here since it is not one of the pollutants originally regulated under the Clean Air Act for its harm to human health.

Industries and motor vehicles emit carbon monoxide directly when they use energy. Nitrogen dioxide forms from the emissions of automobiles, power plants and other sources. Ground level ozone (also known as tropospheric ozone) is not emitted but is the product of chemical reactions between nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic chemicals. The EPA tracks these and other pollutants from monitoring sites across the United States. The data below shows nationwide and regional trends for carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone between 2000 and 2014. States with consistent climates and weather patterns were grouped together by the EPA to make up each region.

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas produced from combustion processes, e.g., when gasoline reacts rapidly with oxygen and releases exhaust; the majority of national CO emissions come from mobile sources like automobiles. CO can reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and at very high levels can cause death. CO concentrations are measured in parts per million (ppm). Since 1994, federal law prohibits CO concentrations from exceeding 9 ppm during an eight-hour period more than once per year.

The chart below compares the annual average concentration of carbon monoxide in the Northeastern and Southeastern regions of the United States between 2000 and 2014. States with consistent climates and weather patterns are grouped together by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which collects these data, to make up each region. Each line represents the annual average of all the data collected from pollution monitoring sites in each region. In the Northeast, there were 32 monitoring sites throughout 11 states, compared to 22 monitoring sites throughout six states in the Southeast. In 2000, the average concentration of carbon monoxide was 2.7 ppm in the Northeast, compared to 3.91 ppm in the Southeast. In 2014, the average concentration of carbon monoxide was 1.2 ppm in the Northeast, a decrease of 61.1 percent from 2000, compared to 1.52 ppm in the Southeast, a decrease of 56.7 percent from 2000.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂)

Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) is one of a group of gasses known as nitrogen oxides (NO_x). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) measures NO₂ as a representative for the larger group of nitrogen oxides. NO₂ forms from the emissions of cars, buses, trucks, power plants, and off-road equipment. It helps form ground-level ozone and fine particle pollution, and has been linked to respiratory problems. Since 1971, federal law prohibits NO₂ concentrations from exceeding a daily one-hour average of 100 parts per billion (ppb) and an annual average of 53 parts per billion (ppb).

The chart below compares the annual one-hour average concentration of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) in the Northeastern and Southeastern regions of the United States between 2000 and 2014. In the Northeast, there were 32 monitoring sites throughout 11 states, compared to 14 monitoring sites throughout six states in the Southeast. In 2000, the one-hour daily average concentration of NO₂ was 61.31 ppb in the Northeast, compared to 57 ppb in the Southeast. In 2014, the one-hour daily average concentration of NO₂ was 43.98 ppb in the Northeast, a decrease of 28.2 percent since 2000, compared to 38.36 ppb in the Southeast, a decrease of 32.6 percent since 2000.

Ground-level ozone

Ground-level ozone is created by chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides (NO_x) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in sunlight. Major sources of NO_x and VOCs include industrial facilities, electric utilities, automobiles, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents. Ground-level ozone can produce health problems for children, the elderly, and asthmatics. Since 2008, federal law has prohibited ozone concentrations from exceeding a daily eight-hour average of 75 parts per billion (ppb). Beginning in 2025, federal law will prohibit ground-level ozone concentrations from exceeding a daily eight-hour average of 70 ppb.

The chart below compares the daily eight-hour average concentration of ground-level ozone in the Northeastern and Southeastern regions of the United States between 2000 and 2014. In the chart below, ozone concentrations are measured in parts per million (ppm), which can be converted to parts per billion (ppb). In the Northeast, there were 133 monitoring sites throughout 11 states, compared to 153 monitoring sites throughout six states in the Southeast. In 2000, the daily eight-hour average concentration of ozone was 0.083 ppm, or 83 ppb in the Northeast, compared to 0.082 ppm, or 82 ppb in the Southeast. In 2014, the daily eight-hour average concentration of ozone was 0.066 ppm, or 66 ppb in the Northeast, a decrease of 19.5 percent since 2000, compared to 0.063 ppm, or 63 ppb in the Southeast, a decrease of 23.9 percent since 2000.

State laws

Pennsylvania's environmental laws and regulations are published by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection and can be found here.

Enforcement

The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection is composed of four major environmental bureaus:

• The Air Quality Bureau maintains air quality and issues permits for major industrial sources of air pollution.
• The Radiation Protection Bureau regulates the use of radioactive material, radiation producing machines, radon, nuclear materials and low-level radioactive waste.
• The Bureau of Waste Management manages hazardous, municipal and residual waste programs.
• The Office of Water Management develops water quality standards for waterways, surface waters and groundwater sources.

Historical budget information

The table below shows state budget figures for Pennsylvania's environmental and natural resource departments compared to neighboring states.

Total state natural resource expenditures by state
State	Departments/Divisions	FY 2013	FY 2012	FY 2011
Pennsylvania	Environmental Protection; Conservation and Natural Resources	$662,640,000	$674,941,000	$677,297,000
Maryland	Environment	$438,614,337	$242,791,099	$233,475,248
New York	Environmental Conservation	$897,781,000	$1,085,226,000	$947,722,000
Ohio	Environmental Protection Agency; Natural Resources	$548,125,357	$440,260,403	$557,451,950
Sources: Pennsylvania Office of the Budget, Maryland Department of Budget and Management, New York Division of the Budget, Ohio Office of Budget and Management

Major groups

Below is a list of environmental advocacy organizations in Pennsylvania.

• Pennsylvania Environmental Council
• Pennsylvania Environmental Defense Foundation
• PennEnvironment
• Sierra Club - Pennsylvania Chapter
• Pennsylvania Organization for Watersheds and Rivers

Ballot measures

Voting on the Environment
Ballot Measures
By state
By year
Not on ballot
Local Local environment Local GMO Local fracking

Natural resources

• Pennsylvania Question 9, Bond Issue for Conservation of Natural Resources Amendment (May 1967)

Environment

• Pennsylvania Question 3, Environmental Rights Amendment (May 1971)
• Pennsylvania Question 3, State Parks, Conservation, and Recreation Bonds Amendment (1963)
• Pennsylvania Environment, Open Space, and Mine Remediation Bond Measure (May 2005)

Water

• Pennsylvania Water Supply Bond Measure (April 1988)
• Pennsylvania Question 1, Water Supply Systems Bond Measure (1981)
• Pennsylvania Financial Assistance for 1971-1972 Flood Damage Amendment (1972)
• Pennsylvania Financial Assistance for Flood Damages Amendment (1975)
• Pennsylvania Water and Wastewater Infrastructure Bond Measure (April 2004)
• Pennsylvania Water Infrastructure Bond Measure (2008)

Recent news

The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms Pennsylvania environmental policy. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

Historical Pennsylvania environmental information, 1971-2016 - Google News

See also

• 

  Environmental policy in the U.S.

• 

  Energy policy in the U.S.

• 

  Endangered species policy in the U.S.

• Endangered species in Pennsylvania
• Energy policy in Pennsylvania
• Federal land ownership by state
• BLM oil and gas leases by state
• Payments in lieu of taxes

External links

• Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection
• Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

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