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History of women's suffrage in the United States

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From 1848 to 1920, suffragists advocated for state and federal constitutional amendments that would give women the right to vote in the United States. The beginning of the U.S. suffrage movement is dated as 1848, according to the National Women's History Museum. At the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention, which was the first women’s rights convention in the United States, organizers declared that men and women are created equal and, therefore, have the same civic rights and privileges, including "the inalienable right to the elective franchise."[1] The 19th Amendment was ratified 72 years later in 1920, prohibiting the denial of the right to vote on account of sex.[2]

Historian Susan Ware, writing about the effects of the 19th Amendment, said that white women and a small minority of northern and western African American women were the "primary beneficiaries of the 19th Amendment at first." The majority of Black men and women were not able to vote due to Jim Crow laws until the Voter Rights Act was passed.[3] Click here for more information on the practical suffrage implications of the 19th Amendment.

This page provides an overview of the women's suffrage movement in the United States, including:

19th Amendment

See also: Amendment XIX, United States Constitution

On August 18, 1920, the 19th Amendment (Amendment XIX) was added to the U.S. Constitution. The 19th Amendment stated that the right of U.S. citizens to vote shall not be denied or abridged on account of sex.

“

Amendment XIX

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.[4]

”

Congress

In the U.S., there are two methods for amending the federal constitution. First, the legislatures in two-thirds of the states can petition Congress to hold a constitutional convention. As of 2020, the state-initiated convention process had never been used. Second, Congress can pass a constitutional amendment through two-thirds votes of present members in each chamber (House of Representatives and Senate), sending the amendment to the states for ratification. An amendment is added to the U.S. Constitution after three-fourths of the states, either through state legislatures or special ratifying conventions, vote to pass the proposal. The Congress-led process was used to adopt the 19th Amendment.

On May 19, 1919, Congress convened a special session to address House Joint Resolution 1 (HJR 1), which was a resolution that would become the 19th Amendment.[5] On May 21, the U.S. House voted 304 to 89 to pass HJR 1. On June 4, 1919, the U.S. Senate voted 56 to 25 to pass HJR 1.[6] In the House, 30 representatives did not vote. In the Senate, 14 senators did not vote.[7][8]

The following is a breakdown of the votes on HJR 1:[7][8]

House Joint Resolution 1 (19th Amendment) of 1919DemocraticRepublican Prohibition Farmer-Labor
Senate:Required: 54 Yes votes: 56 (69.1%)No votes: 25 (30.9%)Yes: 20; No: 17Yes: 36; No: 8NoneNone
House:Required: 262 Yes votes: 304 (77.4%)No votes: 89 (22.6%)Yes: 102; No: 70Yes: 200; No: 19Yes: 1; No: 0Yes: 1; No: 0

States

After HJR 1 passed both chambers of Congress, the resolution needed the support of three-fourths of the states, which was 36 states in 1919-1920, to become the 19th Amendment. The 36th state approved a resolution on August 18, 1920. The following is a list of states that ratified the 19th Amendment:[9]

  1. Illinois (June 10, 1919)
  2. Wisconsin (June 10, 1919)
  3. Michigan (June 10, 1919)
  4. Kansas (June 16, 1919)
  5. Ohio (June 16, 1919)
  6. New York (June 16, 1919)
  7. Pennsylvania (June 24, 1919)
  8. Massachusetts (June 25, 1919)
  9. Texas (June 28, 1919)
  10. Iowa (July 2, 1919)
  11. Missouri (July 3, 1919)
  12. Arkansas (July 28, 1919)
  13. Montana (July 30, 1919)
  14. Nebraska (August 2, 1919)
  15. Minnesota (September 8, 1919)
  16. New Hampshire (September 10, 1919)
  17. Utah (September 30, 1919)
  18. California (November 1, 1919)
  19. Maine (November 5, 1919)
  20. North Dakota (December 1, 1919)
  21. South Dakota (December 4, 1919)
  22. Colorado (December 12, 1919)
  23. Kentucky (January 6, 1920)
  24. Rhode Island (January 6, 1920)
  25. Oregon (January 12, 1920)
  26. Indiana (January 16, 1920)
  27. Wyoming (January 26, 1920)
  28. Nevada (February 7, 1920)
  29. New Jersey (February 9, 1920)
  30. Idaho (February 11, 1920)
  31. Arizona (February 12, 1920)
  32. New Mexico (February 16, 1920)
  33. Oklahoma (February 23, 1920)
  34. West Virginia (March 10, 1920)
  35. Washington (March 22, 1920)
  36. Tennessee (August 18, 1920)


The remaining 12 states that did not vote for ratification until after the 19th Amendment was added to the U.S. Constitution. Those states are Connecticut (September 14, 1920), Vermont (February 8, 1921), Delaware (March 6, 1923), Maryland (March 29, 1941), Virginia (February 21, 1952), Alabama (September 8, 1953), Florida (May 13, 1969), South Carolina (July 1, 1969), Georgia (February 20, 1970), Louisiana (June 11, 1970), North Carolina (May 6, 1971), and Mississippi (March 22, 1984).[10]

Suffrage in the states

See also: State women's suffrage ballot measures

Before the 19th Amendment, the women's suffrage movement also campaigned for changes to state constitutions to provide women with a right to vote. Suffragists Carrie Chapman Catt and Nettie Rogers Shuler, in their book Woman Suffrage and Politics (1923), wrote that state ballot measures "spun the main thread of suffrage activity" in the movement's earlier years and were seen as stepping stones to national suffrage. "I don't know the exact number of States we shall have to have," said Susan B. Anthony, "but I do know that there will come a day when that number will automatically and resistlessly act on the Congress of the United States to compel the submission of a federal suffrage amendment." When asked about federal support for women's suffrage in 1908, President Theodore Roosevelt told the suffrage movement to "Go, get another State."[11]

Between 1867 and August 18, 1920, 54 ballot measures to grant women's suffrage were on the ballot in 30 states. Fifteen (15) of the ballot measures were approved, giving women the right to vote in 15 states. Since women did not have suffrage until after the ballot measures were approved, male voters decided the outcome of suffrage ballot measures. The 15 states that passed suffrage amendments were Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.


Between the 19th Amendment and the VRA

The 15th Amendment prohibited the government from denying a citizen's right to vote on account of race, and the 19th Amendment prohibited the government from denying a citizen's right to vote on account of sex. However, some states and localities had laws, such as poll taxes, reading and legal knowledge tests, and grandfather clauses, that disenfranchised men and women of color. Intimidation was also used to keep people of color from registering to vote and voting.[12]

Writing for the National Park Service, historian Liette Gidlow stated, "Hardly the end of the struggle for diverse women's equality, the Nineteenth Amendment became a crucial step, but only a step, in the continuing quest for more representative democracy." Gidlow wrote that in 1921, six months after the ratification of the 19th Amendment, "... disfranchised black women asked the League of Women Voters and the National Woman's Party (NWP) to help, the main organizations of former suffragists turned them down. NWP head Alice Paul insisted in 1921 that Black women's disfranchisement was a 'race issue,' not a 'woman's issue,' and thus no business of the NWP."[13][14]

Historian Susan Ware, writing about the effect of the 19th Amendment, stated, "The primary beneficiaries of the 19th Amendment at first were white women and the small minority of African American women who lived in northern and western states, where there were no racial restrictions on voting. The vast majority of African Americans still lived in the South, where men and women were kept from voting by Jim Crow laws put in place in the late 19th century."[15]

On August 6, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act (VRA), which was intended to enforce the 15th Amendment.[16]

Notable events

The following is a list of notable political and organizational events related to women's suffrage and the women's suffrage movement through 1920 in the United States:

Elizabeth Cady Stanton (left) and Susan B. Anthony (right) in 1870. Source: Library of Congress
  • 1848: The Seneca Falls Convention was held in Seneca Falls, New York, on July 19 and 20, 1948. According to the National Constitution Center, the Seneca Falls Convention was the first women’s rights convention in the United States.[17]
  • 1850: The first of several meetings titled the National Women's Rights Convention was held in Worcester, Massachusetts, on October 23 and 24, 1850.[18]
  • 1866: Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Fredrick Douglass formed the American Equal Rights Association (AERA), which sought universal suffrage regardless of race, color, or sex.
  • 1866: U.S. Sen. Edgar Cowan (R-Pennsylvania) attempted to amend a voting bill to include women's suffrage, but Cowan's amendment was rejected 9-37.[19]
  • 1868: U.S. Sen. S.C. Pomeroy (R-Kansas) introduced a federal constitutional amendment, which did not receive a vote, that would have granted suffrage to all native or naturalized citizens. His proposal read, "The basis of suffrage in the United States shall be that of citizenship, and all native or naturalized citizens shall enjoy the same rights and privileges of the elective franchise."[20]
  • 1869: AERA dissolved after disagreements at the 1869 meeting, which led to the formation of two new organizations—the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton founded the NWSA, aimed at achieving suffrage through an amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The AWSA aimed to win suffrage for women through the states.[21]
  • 1872: Susan B. Anthony, along with several other women, cast a general election ballot in Rochester, New York, including for Ulysses Grant (R) in the presidential election. Anthony was arrested, tried, and convicted in federal court. She was fined $100 but responded, "I shall never pay a dollar of your unjust penalty." She never paid the fine.[23]
  • 1874: The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was formed in Ohio to advocate for alcohol prohibition. WCTU supported temperance and suffrage issues and petitioned Congress to pass a women's suffrage amendment.[24]
  • 1878: U.S. Sen. Aaron Sargent (R-California) introduced a federal constitutional amendment to grant women's suffrage. The U.S. Senate Committee on Privileges and Elections rejected the proposal, which read, "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."[20]
  • 1882: U.S. Sen. George Hoar (R-Massachusetts) proposed a Select Committee on Woman Suffrage, which was formed on January 9, 1882. On June 5, 1882, the committee recommended that a women's suffrage amendment be adopted.[19]
  • 1887: The full U.S. Senate voted on a women's suffrage amendment for the first time, rejecting the proposal 16-34.[19]
  • 1890: The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) merge into a single organization—the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA).[26]
  • 1896: The National Association of Colored Women (NACW) was formed with the goal of addressing discrimination based on gender and race, including issues related to suffrage. Mary Church Terrell was the organization's first president.[27]
  • 1911: The National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage (NAOWS) was formed to oppose women's suffrage. Josephine Dodge, who led an anti-suffrage organization in New York, was the national association's first leader.[28]
  • 1914: The National Federation of Women’s Clubs, which had over two million women members throughout the U.S., endorsed the suffrage movement.[29]
  • 1914: The full U.S. Senate voted on a women's suffrage amendment for the second time, which did not receive the two-thirds vote required to pass a constitutional amendment. The vote was 35-34.[19]
  • 1916: Alice Paul and Lucy Burns formed the National Women’s Party (NWP), which used protesting tactics, such as picketing, marching, hunger strikes, and civil disobedience, along with lobbying.[31]
Protestors with the National Woman's Party in front of White House in 1919. Source: Library of Congress
  • 1918: President Woodrow Wilson (D) endorsed the women's suffrage amendment in a speech before the U.S. Congress. He said, "We have made partners of the women in this war… Shall we admit them only to a partnership of suffering and sacrifice and toil and not to a partnership of privilege and right?"[32]
  • 1918: The U.S. House passed a federal suffrage amendment in a vote of 274 to 136, which was the minimum number of votes required to pass the amendment. The U.S. Senate voted 62 to 34, which was two votes short of the two-thirds requirement to pass the amendment.[33]
  • 1919: On May 19, 1919, Congress convened a special session to address House Joint Resolution 1 (HJR 1), which was the resolution that would become the 19th Amendment. On May 21, the U.S. House voted 304 to 89 to pass HJR 1. At least 262 votes were needed in the House. On June 4, 1919, the U.S. Senate voted 56 to 25 to pass HJR 1. At least 54 votes were needed in the Senate.[6]
  • 1920: On August 18, 1920, the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified after 36 states, which was three-fourths of the 48 states (Alaska and Hawaii were not states until 1959), passed the resolution.[34]

Notable organizations

The following is a list of notable organizations related to women's suffrage and the women's suffrage movement through 1920 in the United States:

  • American Equal Rights Association (1866 – 1869): Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Fredrick Douglass founded the American Equal Rights Association (AERA) in 1866. Lucretia Mott was the organization's president. AERA sought to "secure Equal Rights to all American citizens, especially the right of suffrage, irrespective of race, color, or sex." The organization dissolved in 1869 after disagreements regarding the 15th Amendment. The American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), which supported the 15th Amendment, and the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), which opposed the 15th Amendment, formed following AERA's dissolution.[35]
  • American Woman Suffrage Association (1869 – 1890): The American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) was founded in 1869. Leaders included Lucy Stone, Henry Blackwell, and Julia Ward Howe. AWSA aimed to win suffrage for women on a state-by-state basis. In 1890, AWSA and the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) decided to consolidate into a single organization—the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)—that would combine the groups' strategies and goals.[36]
  • National Woman Suffrage Association (1869 – 1890): Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton founded the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) in New York City in 1869. NWSA aimed to achieve suffrage through an amendment to the U.S. Constitution.[37] According to the National Women's History Museum, NWSA was "more radical and controversial than the competing American Woman Suffrage Association." In 1890, AWSA and the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) decided to consolidate into a single organization—the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA).[38]
  • Women's Christian Temperance Union (1874 – Present): In 1874, the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was founded in Cleveland, Ohio, to highlight the impact of alcohol abuse on women and children and advocate for alcohol prohibition. The WCTU endorsed women's suffrage in 1881.[39] According to the U.S. House Archives, "Despite common interest in securing the vote for women, there was a marked difference in tone between the WCTU and the suffrage movement. The WCTU focused on securing women’s participation in the political process as the protectors of the home, rather than the suffragists’ more radical idea of gender equality, which helped legitimize the movement."[40]
  • National American Woman Suffrage Association (1890 – 1920): In 1890, the AWSA and NWSA merged into a single organization–the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). NAWSA was the central organization in coordinating the national suffrage movement.[41] Under the leadership of Carrie Chapman Catt, the NAWSA focused on both state referendums and a federal amendment for women's suffrage. Members of the NAWSA, along with the National Council of Women Voters, founded the League of Women Voters after the 19th Amendment was ratified.[42]
  • National Association of Colored Women’s Clubs (1896 – Present): The National Association of Colored Women (NACW) was founded in 1896, with Mary Church Terrell as the first president of the NACW. Harriet Tubman and Ida B. Wells-Barnett were among the organization's founders. According to the National Women's History Museum, "Unlike predominantly white suffrage organizations, however, the NACW advocated for a wide range of reforms to improve life for African Americans."[43]
  • National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage (1911 – 1920): Josephine Dodge founded the National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage (NAOWS) in 1911. Before NAOWS, anti-suffragists had no national organization, although state and local organizations existed.[28] The NAOWS had headquarters in New York City and Washington, D.C.. The organization was disbanded following the ratification of the 19th Amendment.[44]
  • National Woman's Party (1916 – Present): Alice Paul and Lucy Burns founded the National Woman's Party (NWP) in 1916. In The Encylopedia of Women in American History, the NWP is described as employing "a strategy of dramatic, nonviolent protest that included parading, picketing, civil disobedience, and hunger strikes." After the ratification of the 19th Amendment, the NWP launched a campaign to pass a federal Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). As of 2020, the NWP remained active, with a headquarters in Washington, D.C..[45]

Notable figures

The following is a list of notable individuals related to women's suffrage and the women's suffrage movement through 1920 in the United States:

Lucy Burns, who co-founded the NWP, served more time in jail for picketing and demonstrations than any other U.S. suffragist. Source: Library of Congress
  • Susan B. Anthony (1820 – 1906): Susan B. Anthony, along with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, founded the American Equal Rights Association and later the National Woman Suffrage Association. Anthony also became the president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1892. Anthony gave many public speeches against slavery and in favor of women's suffrage. On November 18, 1872, Anthony, along with 14 other women, were arrested for attempting to vote and charged with voting illegally. Her trial, United States v. Susan B. Anthony, received national attention and press coverage. She was given a guilty verdict and fined $100, which she refused to pay.[23][46]
  • Lucy Burns (1879 – 1966): Lucy Burns studied linguistics at Vassar College, Yale University, the University of Berlin in Germany, and Oxford College. In 1909, she joined the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in the United Kingdom. In 1912, Burns returned to the U.S. and led the congressional commission of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). Throughout her efforts for women's suffrage, Burns was arrested and imprisoned six times for picketing and demonstrating. While imprisoned, she led hunger strikes in the Occoquan Workhouse. Burns served more time in jail for picketing and demonstrations than any other U.S. suffragist.[31][47]
  • Carrie Chapman Catt (1859 – 1947): Carrie Chapman Catt succeeded Susan B. Anthony as the president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1900 and also served as the organization's president from 1915 to 1920. As president of the NAWSA, Catt also helped found the League of Women Voters in 1920. She was involved in organizing the International Woman Suffrage Alliance (IWSA) in 1902. Catt and Nettie Rogers Shuler wrote the book Woman Suffrage and Politics in 1923. Catt championed a state-by-state strategy that leveraged women's suffrage at the state-level toward national suffrage and the ratification of the 19th Amendment.[11][48]
  • Frederick Douglass (1817 – 1895): Fredrick Douglass was an abolitionist and former slave, who escaped from Maryland to New York in 1838. Douglass published the book Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave, founded the newspaper The Northern Star, and was known for his public speaking. He advised President Abraham Lincoln on several occasions during the U.S. Civil War.[49] In 1848, Douglass was invited to the Seneca Falls Convention—the first women’s rights convention in the United States—where he signed the Declaration of Sentiments. In 1866, he co-founded the American Equal Rights Association (AERA) with Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. AERA advocated for universal suffrage regardless of race, color, or sex.[50]
  • Virginia Minor (1824 – 1894): Virginia Minor founded the Woman Suffrage Association of Missouri in 1867. In 1872, Minor tried to register to vote in St. Louis, but her application was rejected because Minor was female. Virginia Minor and her husband Francis Minor, a lawyer, sued the state (women could not sue in Missouri until 1889), arguing that women were U.S. citizens under the 14th Amendment, which "nowhere gives [states] the power to prevent" a citizen from voting. The case was appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled that the 14th Amendment did not provide anyone, including women, with the right to vote.[51]
  • Lucretia Coffin Mott (1793 – 1880): Lucretia Coffin Mott co-organized the Seneca Fall Convention in 1848 and served as the first president of the American Equal Rights Association. Mott was also involved in the abolition movement, founding the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society in 1833. She was involved in founding several higher education institutions in southeastern Pennsylvania, including Swarthmore College, the Female Medical College of Pennsylvania, and the School of Design for Women (Moore College of Art).[52][53]
  • Alice Paul (1885 – 1977): Alice Paul co-founded the National Women’s Party with Lucy Burns in 1912. Before the NWP, Paul led the National American Woman Suffrage Association’s (NAWSA) Congressional Committee. Paul organized parades and pickets, including the Silent Sentinels. She was arrested for not paying fines related to traffic obstruction (during protests) charges. Paul was sent to prison at the Occoquan Workhouse, where she led hunger strikes that were successful at getting the attention of the public and politicians, including President Wilson. Paul authored the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) in 1923.[54]
  • Jeannette Rankin (1880 – 1973): Jeannette Rankin (R-Montana) was the first woman elected to Congress. She served two terms in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1917 to 1919 and 1941 to 1943. She ran on a pro-suffrage and pacifist platform that emphasized social welfare issues, according to the U.S. House Archives. Rankin was president of the Montana Women's Suffrage Association, the first woman to speak before the Montana State Legislature in 1911, and an organizer for the campaigns that supported women's suffrage state constitutional amendments in Washington (1910) and Montana (1914).[30][55]
  • Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815 – 1902): Elizabeth Cady Stanton was the "chief philosopher of the woman’s rights and suffrage movements," according to the National Women's History Museum. Stanton co-organized the Seneca Falls Convention and wrote the meeting's central document, The Declaration of Sentiments. Stanton met Susan B. Anthony in 1851, and the two co-founded the American Equal Rights Association and later the National Woman Suffrage Association. In 1895, Stanton published a best-selling book, titled The Woman's Bible, that challenged the interpretation of biblical texts used to subjugate women to men. Some suffragists worried that Stanton's views would harm the suffrage movement's outreach. In 1896, the National American Woman Suffrage Association voted to censure Stanton.[56][57]
  • Lucy Stone (1818 – 1893): Lucy Stone co-founded the American Woman Suffrage Association and organized the first national Women’s Rights Convention. Stone also worked for the American Anti-Slavery Society, writing and delivering abolitionist speeches. In 1867, she traveled to Kansas to campaign for the first state women's suffrage amendment and a black male suffrage amendment. Kansas Sen. Sam Wood (R), who supported suffrage, heralded Stone’s involvement, saying, “With the help of God and Lucy Stone, we shall carry Kansas!” Both constitutional amendments were defeated.[58][59]
Ida B. Wells-Barnett was a journalist, researcher, and activist. She founded the Alpha Suffrage Club, the first suffrage club for black women. Source: Library of Congress
  • Mary Church Terrell (1863 – 1954): Mary Church Terrell was a professor, civil rights and women’s suffrage activist, and the first president of the National Association of Colored Women’s Club. She was also a co-founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.[60] She was a member of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), giving an address, titled "The Progress of Colored Women," to the organization in 1898.[61]
  • Sojourner Truth (1797 – 1883): Sojourner Truth was an advocate for abolition, women’s rights, and temperance. She was born a slave in New York in 1797 but escaped to live with the abolitionists Isaac and Maria Van Wagenen until the New York State Emancipation Act went into effect in 1827. Truth could not read or write but was known as a charismatic speaker. She delivered her famous speech, “Ain’t I a Woman?”, at a women’s rights conference in 1851.[62][63]
  • Ida B. Wells-Barnett (1862 – 1931): Ida B. Wells-Barnett was an African-American journalist, researcher, and an anti-lynching, civil rights, and women's suffrage activist.[64] Wells-Barnett challenged racial segregation and discrimination in the women's suffrage movement.[65] She played roles in founding the National Association of Colored Women’s Clubs (1896), the Afro-American Council (1898), the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (1910), and the Alpha Suffrage Club (1913).[66]
  • Victoria Woodhull (1838 – 1927): Victoria Woodhull was the first woman to address members of the U.S. House of Representatives in 1871. Before the Judiciary Committee, Woodhull argued that the 14th Amendment and 15th Amendment should be interpreted as granting women the right to vote.[22] In 1872, Woodhull was the first woman candidate for president in the United States, running for the Equal Rights Party.[67]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ National Park Service, "Declaration of Sentiments," accessed May 28, 2020
  2. ↑ National Women's History Museum, "The Woman Suffrage Movement," accessed June 17, 2020
  3. ↑ Teen Vogue, "The 19th Amendment Only Really Helped White Women," August 16, 2020
  4. ↑ Note: This text is quoted verbatim from the original source. Any inconsistencies are attributable to the original source.
  5. ↑ U.S. House of Representatives, "Why Not Have it Constitutionally?": Race, Gender, and the Nineteenth Amendment," May 21, 2019
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Library of Congress, "Congress Approves Nineteenth Amendment," accessed June 8, 2020
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 GovTrack, "House Vote on HJR 10," accessed June 10, 2020
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 GovTrack, "Senate Vote on HJR 1," accessed June 10, 2020
  9. ↑ National Park Service, "State-by-State Race to Ratification of the 19th Amendment," accessed June 10, 2020
  10. ↑ U.S. Government Publishing Office, "Amendment XIX," accessed June 10, 2020
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Catt, Carrie Chapman and Nettie Rogers Shuler. (1923). Woman Suffrage and Politics: The Inner Story of the Suffrage Movement. New York, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. (pages 149-150)
  12. ↑ African American Policy Forum, "Voting Rights Act," accessed August 10, 2020
  13. ↑ National Park Service, "Beyond 1920: The Legacies of Woman Suffrage," accessed August 10, 2020
  14. ↑ University of Washington, "Mapping American Social Movements Project," accessed August 10, 2020
  15. ↑ Teen Vogue, "The 19th Amendment Only Really Helped White Women," August 16, 2020
  16. ↑ History, "President Johnson signs Voting Rights Act," accessed August 10, 2020
  17. ↑ National Constitution Center, "On this day, the Seneca Falls Convention begins," July 19, 2019
  18. ↑ Library of Congress, "First National Women’s Rights Convention," accessed May 28, 2020
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 U.S. Senate, "Woman Suffrage Centennial," accessed May 28, 2020
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 U.S. Senate, "Woman Suffrage Centennial, Part. 1," accessed May 28, 2020
  21. ↑ American Bar Association, "Suffrage Timeline," accessed May 28, 2020
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 U.S. House of Representatives, "The First Woman to Address a House Committee," accessed May 28, 2020
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Library of Congress, "Women's Suffrage: Their Rights and Nothing Less," accessed June 8, 2020
  24. ↑ U.S. House of Representatives, "WCTU Petition for Woman Suffrage," accessed May 28, 2020
  25. ↑ U.S. Supreme Court, "Minor v. Happersett," accessed May 28, 2020
  26. ↑ Library of Congress, "The National American Woman Suffrage Association," accessed June 8, 2020
  27. ↑ Library of Congress, "Mary Church Terrell," accessed June 8, 2020
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 National Women's History Museum, "National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage," accessed June 8, 2020
  29. ↑ Library of Congress, "One Hundred Years toward Suffrage: An Overview," accessed June 8, 2020
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 U.S. House of Representatives, "Rankin, Jeannette," accessed June 8, 2020
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Library of Congress, "Historical Overview of the National Womans Party," accessed June 8, 2020
  32. ↑ Wilson Center, "Woodrow Wilson and the Women's Suffrage Movement: A Reflection," June 4, 2013
  33. ↑ U.S. House of Representatives, "The House’s 1918 Passage of a Constitutional Amendment Granting Women the Right to Vote," accessed June 8, 2020
  34. ↑ National Archives, "19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Women's Right to Vote," accessed June 8, 2020
  35. ↑ Appleby, Joyce, Eileen Cheng, and JoAnne Good. (2015). Encyclopedia of Women in American History. New York, NY: Routledge. (page 287)
  36. ↑ Appleby, Joyce, Eileen Cheng, and JoAnne Good. (2015). Encyclopedia of Women in American History. New York, NY: Routledge. (pages 287-288)
  37. ↑ Appleby, Joyce, Eileen Cheng, and JoAnne Good. (2015). Encyclopedia of Women in American History. New York, NY: Routledge. (pages 392-393)
  38. ↑ National Women's History Museum, "Suffragists Organize: National Woman Suffrage Association," accessed June 9, 2020
  39. ↑ PBS, "Temperance & Suffrage," accessed June 10, 2020
  40. ↑ U.S. House of Representatives, "WCTU Petition for Woman Suffrage," accessed June 10, 2020
  41. ↑ National Women's History Museum, "Suffragists Unite: National American Woman Suffrage Association," accessed June 10, 2020
  42. ↑ Library of Congress, "National American Woman Suffrage Association Records," accessed June 10, 2020
  43. ↑ National Women's History Museum, "National Association of Colored Women," accessed June 10, 2020
  44. ↑ Appleby, Joyce, Eileen Cheng, and JoAnne Good. (2015). Encyclopedia of Women in American History. New York, NY: Routledge. (page 644)
  45. ↑ Appleby, Joyce, Eileen Cheng, and JoAnne Good. (2015). Encyclopedia of Women in American History. New York, NY: Routledge. (page 647)
  46. ↑ Women's History, "Susan B. Anthony," accessed June 1, 2020
  47. ↑ Turning Point Suffragist Memorial, "Lucy Burns (1879 – 1966)," accessed June 1, 2020
  48. ↑ Carrie Lane Chapman Catt Girlhood Home and Museum, "Biography," accessed June 1, 2020
  49. ↑ The White House Historical Association, "Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln," accessed June 11, 2020
  50. ↑ National Women's History Museum, "Frederick Douglass," accessed June 12, 2020
  51. ↑ National Park Service, "Virginia Minor and Women's Right to Vote," accessed June 17, 2020
  52. ↑ National Women's History Museum, "Lucretia Coffin Mott," accessed June 17, 2020
  53. ↑ Swarthmore College, "Lucretia Coffin Mott," accessed June 17, 2020
  54. ↑ Alice Paul Institute, "Who Was Alice Paul," accessed June 17, 2020
  55. ↑ Billings Gazette, "Jeannette Rankin and the path to women's suffrage in Montana," November 2, 2014
  56. ↑ National Women's History Museum, "Elizabeth Cady Stanton," accessed June 17, 2020
  57. ↑ Library of Congress, "Draft of Elizabeth Cady Stanton's The Woman's Bible, ca. 1895," accessed June 17, 2020
  58. ↑ National Women's History Museum, "Lucy Stone," accessed June 17, 2020
  59. ↑ McMillenm, Sally Gregory. (2015). Lucy Stone: An Unapologetic Life. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. (pages 168-169)
  60. ↑ National Women's History Museum, "Mary Church Terrell," accessed June 12, 2020
  61. ↑ Library of Congress, "The progress of colored women," accessed June 12, 2020
  62. ↑ National Women's History Museum, "Sojourner Truth," accessed June 12, 2020
  63. ↑ National Park Service, "Sojourner Truth: Ain't I A Woman?" accessed June 12, 2020
  64. ↑ National Women's History Museum, "Ida B. Wells-Barnett," accessed June 12, 2020
  65. ↑ Library of Congress, "Ida B. Wells-Barnett Holds Her Ground," accessed June 12, 2020
  66. ↑ Iowa State University Archives of Women's Political Communications, "Ida B. Wells-Barnett," accessed June 12, 2020
  67. ↑ The Ohio State University, "Victoria Woodhull," accessed June 12, 2020
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