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State takeovers of K-12 public school districts
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In K-12 public education, a takeover occurs when a state agency assumes control of a local district or school.[1][2] States most commonly initiate takeovers in response to a district's perceived academic or financial failings. The actual mechanism of takeovers varies by state. In most cases, a state agency, normally the department of education, replaces the locally elected board with state-appointed members. Interventions can be more targeted, however, with states replacing district or school management, such as the superintendent or principal, while leaving the elected board intact.
The earliest takeovers occurred in 1989. The most prominent of these happened in New Jersey in 1989, when the Department of Education replaced the Jersey City Public Schools' board of education, superintendent, and other members of the administration.[3] Since then, states have assumed control of districts or schools in at least 24 other states.[4] Proponents argue takeovers are a method of last resort for districts with longstanding academic and financial difficulties. Opponents argue the data show takeovers rarely achieve their desired ends.
How takeovers work
Since the first takeovers in the late 1980s, states have employed a variety of governance arrangements for turning around low-performing districts or schools. According to The Center on Reinventing Public Education's (CRPE) Ashley Jochim:[2]
| “ | Traditional district takeovers focus the state’s intervention on improving district management and typically provide states (or their agents) with substantial discretion to take unilateral actions to change administrative practices or alter school operating conditions. States in this position can opt to reallocate resources, renegotiate collective bargaining agreements, and contract with charter management organizations (CMOs) or other support providers to operate district schools. This provides states with maximum leverage to influence the turnaround effort.[5] | ” |
Some states allow agencies to assume control of low-performing schools, leaving governance of the other schools within the district to the board of education.[6] In some cases of takeover, the state may transfer control of the district to the mayor.[7]
Laws governing state takeovers
As of 2025, 35 states had laws allowing for the takeover of K-12 public school districts or schools. Not all states authorized to initiate takeovers had actually done so.
Where states have assumed control of schools and districts
We are continuing to build this list of state takeovers. If you know of a case we missed, please email editor@ballotpedia.org.
Between 1988 and 2023, state agencies in at least 25 states assumed control of public school districts or individual schools.[1]
| State takeovers of school districts/schools, 1988-2024 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| State | District | Year | Enrollment (2022-23) | Budget (2020-21) |
| Texas | Houston Independent School District | 2023[8] | 189,934 | $2,622,407,000 |
| Rhode Island | Providence Public Schools | 2019[9] | 20,725 | $555,929,000 |
| Indiana | Gary Community School Corporation | 2017[10] | 4,076 | $83,368,000 |
| Ohio | Lorain City | 2016[11] | 2,894 | $122,614,000 |
| Mississippi | Scott County | 2015[12] | 5,336 | $40,861,000 |
| Ohio | Youngstown City | 2015[13] | 2,040 | $139,434,000 |
| North Carolina | Halifax County | 2015[14] | 623 | $33,086,000 |
| Massachusetts | Holyoke | 2015[15] | 5,935 | $125,506,000 |
| Arkansas | Little Rock School District | 2015[16] | 3,989 | $344,534,000 |
| Kentucky | Menifee County | 2015[17] | 4,639 | $16,013,000 |
| Mississippi | Tunica County School District | 2015[18] | 2,173 | $28,651,000 |
| Missouri | Normandy Schools Collaborative | 2014[19] | 5,046 | $56,102,000 |
| Texas | Beaumont | 2014[20] | 21,456 | $237,474,000 |
| Arkansas | Lee County | 2014[21] | 955 | $9,206,000 |
| Illinois | East St. Louis | 2013[22] | 1,671 | $136,098,000 |
| New Jersey | Camden City | 2013[23] | 16,730 | $471,321,000 |
| Mississippi | Claiborne County | 2013[24] | 631 | $17,557,000 |
| Mississippi | Leflore County | 2013[25] | 4,679 | $50,330,000 |
| Arkansas | Mineral Springs | 2013[26] | 7,099 | $9,399,000 |
| Mississippi | Aberdeen | 2012[27] | 1,188 | $15,197,000 |
| Alabama | Birmingham City | 2012[28] | 4,030 | $312,094,000 |
| Kentucky | Breathitt County | 2012[29] | 375 | $26,679,000 |
| Pennsylvania | Chester-Upland | 2012[30] | 998 | $130,608,000 |
| Arkansas | Dollarway | 2012[31] | 21,130 | $42,857,000 |
| California | Inglewood Unified | 2012[32] | 1,701 | $195,271,000 |
| Illinois | North Chicago | 2012[33] | 3,100 | $79,488,000 |
| Mississippi | Oktibbeha County | 2012[34] | 3,261 | $68,446,000 |
| Texas | El Paso | 2012[35] | 7,354 | $676,551,000 |
| Connecticut | Bridgeport | 2011[36] | 3,489 | $406,621,000 |
| Mississippi | Drew | 2011[37] | 4,894 | $42,955,000 |
| West Virginia | Gilmer County | 2011[38] | 50,031 | $13,384,000 |
| Arkansas | Helena/West Helena | 2011[39] | 19,337 | $18,385,000 |
| Massachusetts | Lawrence | 2011[40] | 2,929 | $285,653,000 |
| Arkansas | Pulaski County Spec. | 2011[41] | 792 | $169,860,000 |
| Connecticut | Windham | 2011[42] | 1,012 | $80,929,000 |
| Missouri | Riverview Gardens School District | 2010[19] | 12,885 | $62,469,000 |
| California | Alisal Union | 2010[43] | 12,244 | $154,598,000 |
| West Virginia | Fayette County | 2010[44] | 3,224 | $96,984,000 |
| Mississippi | Okolona Separate | 2010[45] | 7,509 | $6,957,000 |
| Mississippi | Sunflower County | 2010[46] | 2,929 | $42,955,000 |
| Mississippi | Sunflower County | 2010[47] | 5,613 | $42,955,000 |
| Mississippi | Indianola School District | 2009 | 511 | $42,955,000 |
| Mississippi | North Panola School District | 2009 | 2,929 | $17,491,000 |
| Mississippi | Oktibbeha County School District | 2009 | 2,929 | $68,446,000 |
| Arizona | Colorado City Unified School District | 2005[48] | 1,219 | $9,732,000 |
| Louisiana | NOLA Public Schools | 2005[49] | 4,894 | $399,970,000 |
| New York | New York City Public Schools | 2002 | 938,189 | $34,601,886,000 |
| Mississippi | Drew School District | 2002 | 2,929 | $42,955,000 |
| South Carolina | Allendale County School District | 1999 | 974 | $22,307,000 |
| Mississippi | Sunflower County School District | 1999 | 2,929 | $42,955,000 |
| Michigan | Detroit Public Schools | 1999 | 48,548 | $932,712,000 |
| New Mexico | Santa Fe Independent School District | 1999 | 4,343 | $202,341,000 |
| Alabama | Barbour County School District | 1999 | 715 | $10,338,000 |
| Massachusetts | Lawrence Public Schools | 1998 | 12,885 | $285,653,000 |
| West Virginia | Mingo County School District | 1998 | 3,719 | $56,901,000 |
| Maryland | Baltimore City School District | 1997 | 75,995 | $1,672,842,000 |
| Mississippi | North Panola School District | 1996 | 1,219 | $17,491,000 |
| Mississippi | Oktibbeha County School District | 1996 | 4,894 | $68,446,000 |
| Mississippi | Wilmer-Hutchins Independent School District | 1996 | 141,169 | $2,213,643,000 |
| Alabama | Barbour County School District | 1996 | 715 | $10,338,000 |
| Alabama | Macon County School District | 1996 | 1,790 | $30,557,000 |
| Ohio | Youngstown City Schools | 1996 | 4,639 | $139,434,000 |
| Alabama | Wilcox County School District | 1996 | 1,240 | $21,750,000 |
| New York | Roosevelt Union School District | 1995 | 3,196 | $107,182,000 |
| Ohio | East Cleveland Public Schools | 1995 | 1,408 | $49,407,000 |
| New Jersey | Newark Public Schools | 1995 | 41,672 | $1,315,564,000 |
| District of Columbia | District of Columbia Public Schools | 1995 | 93,807 | N/A |
| Illinois | East St. Louis School District | 1994 | 4,679 | $136,098,000 |
| Kentucky | Letcher County School District | 1994 | 2,596 | $42,317,000 |
| Mississippi | Tunica County School District | 1994 | 1,671 | $28,651,000 |
| Kentucky | Harlan County School District | 1992 | 3,459 | $54,846,000 |
| Massachusetts | Boston Public Schools | 1992 | 46,367 | $1,654,669,000 |
| West Virginia | Logan County Schools | 1992 | 5,190 | $75,684,000 |
| California | Coachella Unified School District | 1992 | 16,455 | $336,811,000 |
| New Jersey | Paterson Public Schools | 1991 | 24,795 | $739,930,000 |
| California | Richmond Unified School District | 1991 | 191 | $2,306,000 |
| Connecticut | West Haven | 1991 | 5,976 | $147,422,000 |
| New Jersey | Jersey City Public Schools | 1989 | 26,647 | $845,624,000 |
| Kentucky | Floyd County Schools | 1989[50] | 5,563 | $134,652,000 |
| Kentucky | Whitley County School District | 1989[50] | 4,336 | $56,679,000 |
History
Throughout the 1980s, state legislatures passed laws authorizing agencies to take over local districts. In his 2018 book Takeover: Race, Education, and American Democracy, Domingo Morel wrote, "The responsibility of educating children has traditionally been placed on an amalgamation of local actors, including school boards, mayors, city councils, parents and community groups. However, in the 1970s, state governments began to exert greater control over the local schools. By the 1980s, state takeovers of local school districts gained traction as a policy option for states."[51]
According to Education Week, Kentucky, in early 1989, was the first state to take control of local districts.[50] In October 1989, the New Jersey New Jersey Board of Education fired the Jersey City Public Schools' superintendent and elected board, in what was considered at the time to be the most extensive takeover to date.[52][53] In 1989, eight states—Arkansas, Georgia, Kentucky, New Jersey, Ohio, South Carolina, Texas, and West Virginia—had laws authorizing state takeovers of local districts.[50]
Noteworthy cases
Houston Independent School District, Texas (2023- present)
On March 15, Texas Commissioner of Education Mike Morath announced in a letter he was appointing a Board of Managers to replace the Houston Independent School District’s (HISD) elected Board of Trustees. Morath cited a number of reasons for the move, including that “one of the district’s campuses received unacceptable academic accountability ratings for five consecutive years.”[54] The TEA installed new board members and a superintendent—former Dallas ISD superintendent Mike Miles—on June 1, 2023.[55][56]
HISD was Texas' largest district, with more than 200,000 students in 2023.
Morath cited HB 1842, a 2015 bill Abbott signed into law, as justification for the takeover. HB 1842 allowed the state to intervene when a school failed to meet accountability standards for two consecutive years.[57][58]
Morath, whom Gov. Greg Abbott (R) appointed to oversee the Texas Education Agency in 2015, first signaled his intent to remove the HISD Board of Trustees on Nov. 6, 2019. Morath notified the district of his decision to replace the elected school board and appoint a superintendent following a TEA investigation into the board's governance and academic performance ratings at Wheatley High School.[59] However, HISD lawyers filed a complaint against the TEA, and Travis County District Judge Catherine Mauzy issued an injunction that prohibited Morath from taking control of the district. On Jan. 13, 2023, the Texas Supreme Court ruled state law allows the TEA to take control of the district, ending the injunction.[60]
Critics said Morath exaggerated HISD's academic failings, and that the takeover was about politics. According to New York University Professor Domingo Morel, "Republican Gov. Greg Abbott, Education Commissioner Mike Morath and the Republican state legislature are manufacturing an education crisis to prevent people of color in Houston from exercising their citizenship rights and seizing political power."[61] Proponents said HISD was unable or unwilling to improve some of its schools, justifying the takeover. Former Texas Education Commissioner Michael L. Williams wrote, "Houston ISD failed to improve its most persistently failing campuses for years, and so the TEA is legally obligated to intervene. Houston ISD could have made decisions at any stage of this process that could have resolved this issue, but they chose not to bring in a partner to improve their failing campus."[62]
Jersey City Public Schools, New Jersey (1989-2022)
On October 4, 1989, the New Jersey Board of Education voted unanimously to approve a takeover of Jersey City Public Schools, citing fiscal mismanagement and dilapidated buildings.[63] The New Jersey Department of Education dismissed the board, the superintendent, and nine administrators, and set an initial five-year timetable for running the district.[64]
The Department of Education sought to take over the district following the passage of a 1988 law that authorized the state to assume control over failing school districts.[64] Jersey City Public Schools had failed to meet state certification requirements in 1984 and 1986, and several schools had reported falling below minimum standardized test scores.[64] The school board contested the takeover in court between 1988 and 1989, arguing the state's funding plan was unfair.[64] A judge ruled in July 1989 that the takeover could proceed, writing: "Social and economic conditions do not excuse shortchanging the children, and in fact provide additional reasons why capable management of the district is so important to the future of the next generation. Children from impoverished backgrounds must not also be condemned to poor schools."[65]
The Department of Education unveiled a plan to begin returning control of Jersey City Public Schools to the local community in 1999.[66] The state allowed the district to regain control in phases throughout the 2000s and 2010s.[67] In 2017, the state relinquished control over instruction and programming, effectively ending the takeover.[67] In 2022, 33 years after the takeover began, the New Jersey Board of Education voted to stop providing oversight of the district and certified it as high-performing.[68]
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See also
- School board elections, 2025
- School board recalls, 2025
- Endorsements of school board members by state executive officeholders and candidates, 2024
- Conflicts in school board elections, 2021-2023
- School board dismissals of district superintendents, 2022-2025
Footnotes
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Brookings, "Do state takeovers of school districts work?" October 24, 2023
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Center on Reinventing Public Education, "Measures of Last Resort: Assessing Strategies for State-Initiated Turnarounds," November 2016
- ↑ New York Times, "State Takeover Upheld For Jersey City Schools," July 27, 1989
- ↑ Brookings, "Do state takeovers of school districts work?" October 24, 2023
- ↑ Note: This text is quoted verbatim from the original source. Any inconsistencies are attributable to the original source.
- ↑ Education Resources Information Center, "State Takeovers of Individual Schools," accessed December 30, 2024
- ↑ Wong, Kenneth K. and Shen, Francis X, "Big City Mayors and School Governance Reform: The Case of School District Takeover," Peabody Journal of Education (2003)
- ↑ K-12 Dive, "Houston schools show test score growth in first year of state takeover," June 10, 2024
- ↑ Rhode Island Current, "State to keep control of Providence schools for three more years," August 29, 2024
- ↑ WFYI, "Indiana ends seven-year takeover of Gary Community School Corporation," June 24, 2024
- ↑ Ideastream Public Media, "Ohio Will Take over Lorain Schools," November 13, 2016
- ↑ Northwest Arkansas Democrat Gazette, "Aim is helping district, state schools chief says," February 1, 2015
- ↑ Cleveland.com, "Ohio Supreme Court upholds controversial state law allowing takeover of Youngstown schools," May 13, 2020
- ↑ The Carolina Journal, "Lessons From the Halifax Takeover," August 13, 2015
- ↑ Education Week, "Massachusetts Takes Over Troubled Holyoke School District," April 28, 2015
- ↑ USA Today, "Arkansas takes over Little Rock School District," January 29, 2015
- ↑ Lexington Herald Leader, "Kentucky education board approves state takeover of Menifee County school district," July 10, 2015
- ↑ KSL.com, "Bryant approves state takeover of Tunica County schools," July 9, 2015
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Missouri Independent, "Missouri education board returns St. Louis-area school districts to local control," December 30, 2023
- ↑ 12 News Now, "TEA announces takeover of BISD, New superintendent to be appointed," April 14, 2014
- ↑ Northwest Arkansas Democrat Gazette, "Aim is helping district, state schools chief says," February 1, 2015
- ↑ Belleville News-Democrat, "East St. Louis school district cites progress, asks state for additional $6.5 million," October 16, 2019
- ↑ Philadelphia Inquirer, "A decade after a state takeover, has the Camden school system made progress?" July 29, 2024
- ↑ Magnolia Tribune, "Judge halts district takeover," September 19, 2013
- ↑ Magnolia Tribune, "State Take-over of Leflore County School system OK’d by Supreme Court," October 25, 2013
- ↑ Talk Business & Politics, "State Takes Over Mineral Springs School District," May 16, 2023
- ↑ The Dispatch, "Aberdeen conservator: Takeover could last two to three years," April 25, 2012
- ↑ AL.com, "Takeover timeline: How the Birmingham Board of Education has (almost) gotten its power back after a year and a half under the state's thumb," December 13, 2024
- ↑ Lexington Herald Leader, "Rare state takeover of school district came after audits found disarray," November 12, 2015
- ↑ NBC Philadelphia, "Chester School District Rejects Financial Recovery Plan," November 27, 2012
- ↑ THV 11, "Dollarway schools removed from state control," June 13, 2014
- ↑ Our Weekly, "Inglewood Unified School District hands over authority to the state," September 20, 2012
- ↑ Afton Partners, "North Chicago CUSD 187: Progress after Injustice," accessed December 30, 2024
- ↑ The Dispatch, "State will take over Oktibbeha schools," September 28, 2012
- ↑ Beaumont Enterprise, "El Paso ISD officials give glimpse into BISD's possible future," March 17, 2014
- ↑ CT Mirror, "State authorizes takeover of Bridgeport schools," July 6, 2011
- ↑ Voting Wars News 21, "School takeovers leave parents without a voice in education," August 20, 2016
- ↑ Education Week, "West Virginia Takes Over Seventh School District," June 9, 2011
- ↑ Northwest Arkansas Democrat Gazette, "Helena school woes required fast fix-up," July 12, 2011
- ↑ Harvard Kennedy School Rappaport Institute for Greater Boston, "School District Turnaround: Learning from Leadership in Lawrence, Massachusetts," January 2018
- ↑ Arkansas Democrat Gazette, "District takeover raises contract questions," June 23, 2011,
- ↑ Hartford Courant, "State Takes Control Of Windham Schools," accessed December 30, 2024
- ↑ Monterey County Now, "Alisal School District implosion sets stage for tough County Superintendent of schools election.," May 20, 2010
- ↑ The Register-Herald, "State to take over control of Fayette County school system," February 12, 2010
- ↑ Daily Journal, "UPDATE: Commission urges state takeover of Okolona school district," February 15, 2010
- ↑ Clarion Ledger, "School takeovers: Which Mississippi districts have faced this before?" September 15, 2017
- ↑ Clarion Ledger, "School takeovers: Which Mississippi districts have faced this before?" September 15, 2017
- ↑ Arizona Daily Star, "State officials prepare to seize control of Colorado City school district," August 11, 2005
- ↑ Nola, "10 years after New Orleans school takeover, here's where it stands," November 21, 2015
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 Education Week, "Board in New Jersey Completes Takeover Of Troubled District," October 11, 1989
- ↑ Takeover: Race, Education, and American Democracy," Domingo Morel," accessed December 30, 2024
- ↑ Los Angeles Times, "Largest Such Takeover in Nation; Corruption, Mismanagement Charged : State Seizes Jersey City School System, Fires Officials," October 5, 1989
- ↑ NJ.com, "N.J. has a history of state takeovers of local governments, agencies," July 20, 2010
- ↑ Texas Education Agency, "Appointment of Board of Managers," March 15, 2023
- ↑ Houston Chronicle, "Timeline: Major moments in TEA's takeover of Houston ISD after year one," May 31, 2024
- ↑ Houston Landing, "Meet the new governing board members of Houston ISD after the state’s takeover," June 1, 2023
- ↑ The Guardian, "Texas took over a failing Houston school district. Will its militaristic structure work?" February 10, 2024
- ↑ Texas Legislative Study Group, "Texas Law & School District Takeovers," accessed January 1, 2025
- ↑ The Texas Tribune, "State to take over Houston ISD by replacing school board and superintendent," November 6, 2019
- ↑ The Texas Tribune, "Texas Supreme Court clears way for state’s education agency to take over Houston ISD," January 13, 2023
- ↑ The Conversation, "The state takeover of Houston public schools is about more than school improvement," March 17, 2023
- ↑ The Dallas Morning News, "Houston ISD’s takeover was a hard, but necessary decision," March 27, 2023
- ↑ Education Week, "Board in New Jersey Completes Takeover Of Troubled District," October 11, 1989
- ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 64.3 Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), "Policy Adaptation and Change: the case of the state takeover of the Jersey City Public Schools," accessed January 2, 2025
- ↑ New York Times, "State Takeover Upheld For Jersey City Schools," July 27, 1989
- ↑ Education Week, "N.J. Plans To End Takeover in Jersey City," May 26, 1999
- ↑ 67.0 67.1 NJ.com, "N.J. ends state takeover of Jersey City's public schools," July 5, 2017
- ↑ New Jersey Monitor, "Jersey City regains full control over school district after 33 years of state oversight," September 15, 2022
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