History of English as official language ballot measures and laws

History of English as official language ballot measures and laws
English language policy ballot measures
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As of 2025, 30 states had designated English as their official language. Three—Alaska, Hawaii, and South Dakota—also recognize some indigenous languages as co-official languages. Most (27) of these states adopted their official language between the 1980s and 2000s, with a median year of 1988.

In 1991, Michele Arington wrote that "[a]lthough a proposed [federal] constitutional amendment, the 'English Language Amendment,' has stalled repeatedly in the Congress," supporters had "considerable success at the state and local levels." Arington added, "The preferred method of enacting such legislation, especially in recent years, has been the initiative and referendum." The trend emerged in the 1980s with California Proposition 63 and continued into the 2000s, with the most recent vote taking place in 2010 in Oklahoma.

Of the 30 states that designated English as their official language, 11 (37%) did so through voter-approved ballot measures. Measures were approved in Alabama, Alaska, California, Colorado, Florida, Hawaii, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Utah, and twice in Arizona. The average vote on these measures was 73.1%, with support ranging from 50.5% to 88.5%.

On March 1, 2025, President Donald Trump (R) issued an executive order "[designating] English as the official language of the United States." On March 7, 2025, Idaho Rep. Dale Hawkins (R-2B) introduced a state constitutional amendment, saying, “Today I took a page out of the Trump administration’s book and proposed a constitutional amendment making English the official language of the state of Idaho.” The Idaho Legislature approved the amendment, which voters will decide on November 3, 2026, marking the first statewide vote on the subject in 16 years.

On this page, you will find:

• a list of state ballot measures;
• a selection of ballot measure arguments; and
• a comprehensive list of state laws.

List of state ballot measures

Check out this episode of Ballotpedia's On the Ballot: "English as the Official Language: Where it already is, and the impact of Trump's Executive Order"

There have been 12 state ballot measures in 11 states (twice in Arizona) to designate English as the state's official language.

• Nebraska was the first state to vote on an official language ballot measure. In 1920, voters approved Amendment 3, designating English as the official language of Nebraska and requiring that public school subjects be taught in English.

• Oklahoma was the most recent state to vote on a measure, with voters approving State Question 751 in 2010. The ballot measure declared English the "common and unifying language of the State of Oklahoma" and required that all official state actions be conducted in English, with exceptions.

• The ballot measure that received the highest approval margin was Alabama Amendment 1, receiving 88.5% of the vote, in 1990. Amendment 1 established English as the state's official language; prohibited laws that diminish or ignore "the role of English as the common language of the state of Alabama;" and granted residents standing to sue the state for enforcement.

• The ballot measure that received the narrowest approval margin was Arizona Proposition 106, receiving 50.5% of the vote, in 1988. Proposition 106 designated English as the official language of Arizona and required governmental actions, functions, and documents to be conducted in English, with exceptions. In Ruiz v. Hull, the Arizona Supreme Court ruled that Proposition 106 violated the First Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution on April 28, 1998, rendering the citizen-initiated constitutional amendment inoperative.

• In 2006, the Arizona State Legislature referred a constitutional amendment, Proposition 103, to the ballot. Proposition 103 also designated English as the official language of Arizona. However, while Proposition 106 required governmental actions, functions, and documents to be conducted in English, Proposition 103 required government representatives to protect and promote English in official functions while allowing unofficial multilingual communication. Proposition 106 was approved with 74.0% of the vote.

The following is a list of state ballot measures to designate English as an official state language:

State official language ballot measures
State	Year	Measure	Origin	Language(s)	Yes	No	Outcome
Nebraska	1920	Amendment 3: English as Official State Language	Convention	English	83.63%	16.37%	a
Hawaii	1978	Amendment 31: Preamble, Official Languages, and Motto Measure	Convention	English and Hawaiian	69.72%	30.28%	a
California	1986	Proposition 63: English as Official State Language	Initiative	English	73.25%	26.75%	a
Arizona	1988	Proposition 106: English as Official State Language	Initiative	English	50.50%	49.50%	a
Colorado	1988	Amendment 1: English as Official State Language	Initiative	English	61.15%	38.85%	a
Florida	1988	Amendment 11: English as Official State Language	Initiative	English	83.87%	16.13%	a
Alabama	1990	Amendment 1: English as Official State Language	Legislature	English	88.52%	11.48%	a
Alaska	1998	Measure 6: English as Official State Language	Initiative	English	68.60%	31.40%	a
Utah	2000	Initiative A: English as Official State Language	Initiative	English	67.18%	32.82%	a
Arizona	2006	Proposition 103: English as Official State Language	Legislature	English	74.00%	26.00%	a
Missouri	2008	Amendment 1: English as Official State Language	Legislature	English	86.31%	13.69%	a
Oklahoma	2010	State Question 751: English as Official State Language	Legislature	English	75.54%	24.46%	a
Idaho	2026	HJR 6: English as Official State Language Amendment	Legislature	English	TBD	TBD	TBD

Arguments

While the ballot measures each sought to designate English as an official state language, the measures differed in terms of application and enforcement. Curated from official voter information pamphlets, the following arguments for and against the ballot measures focus on the provision designating English as the official language, as this was the common provision uniting the measures.

Support

• California Proposition 63 (1986): Former U.S. Sen. Samuel Ichiye Hayakawa (R) wrote, “[California] can move toward fears and tensions of language rivalries and ethnic distrust. Or it can reverse that trend and strengthen our common bond, the English language. … Our American heritage is now threatened by language conflicts and ethnic separatism. Today, there is a serious erosion of English as our common bond. This amendment reaffirms California’s oneness as a state, and as one of fifty states united by a common tongue."

• Alaska Measure 6 (1998): Former Attorney General Edgar Paul Boyko said, "As Americans and Alaskans, we share a commitment to democracy, equality, and freedom. But that shared commitment is only possible if we have a common language that allows us to talk to each other. Like our flag, the pledge of allegiance, and our national anthem, English as our official language is a symbol. These symbols remind Americans and Alaskans of every race, religion, and background of what we all have in common."

• Utah Initiative A (2000): Utahns for Official English wrote, "But beginning in the 1960s, politically correct 'multiculturalists' argued that today’s immigrants shouldn’t be expected to assimilate into our culture. Instead, they say, immigrants should maintain their own national identity, and Americans should be expected to learn the language of the immigrants. And so today, in many parts of our country, immigrants can get a driver’s license, go to school, pay their taxes, and vote for President without ever having to learn English. And this push for new language rights is only getting worse. On August 8th, 2000, Bill Clinton issued an executive order forcing the federal government to vastly expand the number of languages in which it routinely operates. Passing Initiative A will be our way of saying 'We will not let that happen in Utah.'"

• Arizona Proposition 103 (2006): State Rep. Russell Pearce (R) stated, "English has always been the primary means of assimilating millions of immigrants into American society. A common language promotes unity and understanding and is as vital to the health of a nation as having a common currency. Had our government catered to each new group of immigrants by using their language instead of English, there would never have been any incentive to truly become Americans."

Opposition

• California Proposition 63 (1986): Attorney General John Van De Kamp (D), Assembly Speaker Willie Brown (D), and Los Angeles Police Department Police Chief Daryl Gates wrote, "English is and will remain the language of California. Proposition 63 won’t change that. What it will do is produce a nightmare of expensive litigation and needless resentment. Proposition 63 could mean that state and local government must eliminate multilingual police, fire, and emergency services such as 911 telephone operators, thereby jeopardizing the lives and safety of potential victims."

• Alaska Measure 6 (1998): Jennifer Rudinger, executive director of the ACLU of Alaska, said, "For all practical purposes, English already is the common language in Alaska. This proposed English-Only law merely fosters divisiveness by saying to our indigenous and non-English speaking residents that they are not accepted in Alaska, even though many non-English languages and cultures predate English."

• Utah Initiative A (2000): Utah Common Voices and The Democracy Project wrote, "People from around the world overcome great barriers to come to Utah looking for opportunities for themselves and their families. Once here they continue to work hard to become part of our communities. One of the first things new immigrants do is learn English, that is why English as a Second Language classes are filled to capacity with long waiting lists. ... Yes, let’s promote English, but let’s not divide Utah."

• Arizona Proposition 103 (2006): State Sen. Jorge Luis Garcia (D) and State Rep. Ben Miranda (D) stated, "Since there is not a rational basis to make English Arizona’s 'official' language, we are left to conclude that Proposition 103 is directed at Spanish speakers. Proposition 103 is a measure that is steeped in hate."

Official language laws by state

As of 2025, 30 states had designated English as an official language. Three—Alaska, Hawaii, and South Dakota—designated some indigenous languages as co-official alongside English.

The following map highlights the states that have designated official languages.

List of state laws

Below is a list of state laws that designate an official state language. Of the 30 states with such laws, 10 enacted them through a ballot measure. Missouri first passed a legislative statute and later approved a constitutional amendment ballot measure. Therefore, 11 of the 30 states adopted official language laws through ballot measures.

State official language laws
State	Official language(s)	Year	Law
Alabama	English	1990	Alabama Constitution, Article I, Section 36.01 (Amendment 1)
Alaska	English, Inupiaq, Siberian Yupik, Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Alutiiq, Unanga/Cx, Dena'ina, Deg Xinag, Holikachuk, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Gwich'in, Tanana, Upper Tanana, Tanacross, Hän, Ahtna, Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian	1998 (English), 2014 (Native languages)	Alaska Statutes 44.12.300 (Measure 6) and Sec. 44.12.310
Arizona	English	1988 (Overturned), 2006	Arizona Constitution, Article XXVIII (Proposition 103)
Arkansas	English	1987	Arkansas Code 1-4-117
California	English	1986	California Constitution, Article III, Section 6 (Proposition 63)
Colorado	English	1988	Colorado Constitution, Article II, Section 30a (Amendment 1)
Connecticut	None	N/A	N/A
Delaware	None	N/A	N/A
Florida	English	1988	Florida Constitution, Article II, Section 9 (Amendment 11)
Georgia	English	1986	Georgia Code § 50-3-100
Hawaii	English and Hawaiian	1978	Hawaii Constitution, Article XV, Section 4 (Amendment 31)
Idaho	English	2007	Idaho Statutes Sec. 73-121
Illinois	English	1969	Illinois Compiled Statutes Chapter 5, Section 460/20
Indiana	English	1984	Indiana Code Code § 1-2-10-1
Iowa	English	2002	Iowa Code Sec. 1.18
Kansas	English	2007	Kansas Statutes § 73-2801
Kentucky	English	1984	Kentucky Revised Statutes Sec. 2.013
Louisiana	None	N/A	N/A
Maine	None	N/A	N/A
Maryland	None	N/A	N/A
Massachusetts	None	N/A	N/A
Michigan	None	N/A	N/A
Minnesota	None	N/A	N/A
Mississippi	English	1987	Mississippi Code § 3-3-31
Missouri	English	1998, 2008 (Added to Constitution)	Missouri Constitution, Article I, Section 34 (Amendment 1)
Montana	English	1995	Montana Code Annotated § 1-1-510
Nebraska	English	1920	Nebraska Constitution, Article I, Section 27 (Amendment 3)
Nevada	None	N/A	N/A
New Hampshire	English	1995	New Hampshire Revised Statutes Section 3-C:1
New Jersey	None	N/A	N/A
New Mexico	None	N/A	N/A
New York	None	N/A	N/A
North Carolina	English	1987	North Carolina Statutes § 145-12
North Dakota	English	1987	North Dakota Century Code § 54-02-13
Ohio	None	N/A	N/A
Oklahoma	English	2010	Oklahoma Constitution, Article XXX (State Question 751)
Oregon	None	N/A	N/A
Pennsylvania	None	N/A	N/A
Rhode Island	None	N/A	N/A
South Carolina	English	1987	South Carolina Code § 1-1-696
South Dakota	English and O'ceti Sakowin (Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota)	1995 (English), 2019 (O'ceti Sakowin)	South Dakota Codified Laws § 1-27-20
Tennessee	English	1984	Tennessee Code § 4-1-404
Texas	None	N/A	N/A
Utah	English	2000	Utah Code 63G-1-201 (Initiative A)
Vermont	None	N/A	N/A
Virginia	English	1981, 1996 (Revised)	Code of Virginia § 1-511
Washington	None	N/A	N/A
West Virginia	English	2016	West Virginia Code § 2-2-13
Wisconsin	None	N/A	N/A
Wyoming	English	1996	Wyoming Statutes Section § 8-6-101

Note: As of 2025, Massachusetts did not have a law designating English as the official state language. However, there have been several actions designating English as the state's common language. In Commonwealth v. Olivo (1975), the Massachusetts Supreme Court held that, "This is not an officially multilingual country, and notification of official matters in the sole official language of both this nation and this Commonwealth is patently reasonable." In 2002, voters approved Question 2, which addressed education. Question 2 declared, "The English language is the common public language of the United States of America and of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts."

See also

• 2025 ballot measures
• English language policy ballot measures
• Executive Order: Designating English as the Official Language of The United States (Donald Trump, 2025)