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History of Chicago's mayoral office (1837-2019)
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This page documents historical developments in Chicago's mayoral office. It includes the following:
- Evolution of the office: This section explains how the mayor's powers have expanded over time.
- Prominence of the Democratic Party: This section highlights the coalitions and organizational strategies that contributed to the Democratic Party's strength in the city.
- Mayors: 1837-2019: This section contains a list of Chicago's mayors.
- National significance: This section shows how Chicago and its mayor have assumed prominent positions on the national political stage over time.
- Election results: This section provides results for mayoral elections from 1975 to 2019.
Evolution of the office
Chicago's municipal charter of 1837 established the office of mayor as an elected office with one-year terms. In 1863, the term was extended to two years, then to four years in 1907.[1]
The mayor's powers have grown over time, with significant expansions occurring within the first decades of the office's existence. Bessie Louise Pierce outlined early expansions of power in her book, A History of Chicago, Volume II:[2]
| “ |
Under the 1837 charter the mayor was an elective official, but his executive powers were limited, and he was in many respects subordinate to the council. By the consolidating act of 1851, or under the preceding special laws which were combined in the 1851 law, his powers were increased. The responsibility for the enforcement of laws and ordinances, the obligation to give information and make recommendations to the council, the right to appoint the council committees, and perhaps most important of all the suspensive veto power made the mayor a figure of some importance in the municipal organization.[3] |
” |
In 1857, a two-thirds majority requirement was set for the city council to override mayoral vetoes.[2]
In 1872, the Illinois legislature established the Chicago Board of Education and gave the mayor the authority to appoint board members. In 1988, the legislature established a 23-member school board nominating commission, which generated a list of proposed members from which the mayor chose. In 1995, direct appointment power was given back to the mayor.[4][5]
The mayor is also responsible for appointing department heads and proposing the city's budget. In 2018, the city's budget was $8.6 billion, comparable in size to the budget of Iowa.[6][7] In 2018, Chicago's population was 2.706 million while Iowa's was 3.156 million.[8][9] The city's estimated spending for 2018 was greater than that of eight states.[10]
Prominence of the Democratic Party
For the first 90 years during which Chicago had a mayor, voters elected mayors from a variety of parties; Democrats, Republicans, Whigs and more all held the city's top position. That changed after 1927, the year Chicagoans elected their last non-Democratic mayor for at least 90 years.[11]
The following highlights key players and historical developments that contributed to the Democratic Party's strength and organization in the city.
Cermak and Kelly
The first in a long line of consecutive Democratic mayors was Anton Cermak, elected in 1931. Political observers and historians give at least partial credit to Cermak for what they refer to as "the machine"—the Democratic Party organization in Chicago and Cook County more broadly that lasted into the late 1970s or early 1980s.[12][13] "The ascendancy of the Democratic Party was not secured until Anton Cermak built a broad coalition of ethnic and working-class voters that secured his election," according to the Encyclopedia of Chicago.[14] By 1890, when the census first found Chicago to be the nation's second-largest city, immigrants and the children of immigrants made up three-quarters of its population.[15] Cermak was a Czech immigrant.
After Cermak's death in 1933, Cook County Democratic Central Committee chairman Patrick Nash appointed his replacement: Edward Kelly, who served as mayor until 1947. During Kelly's tenure, the city's growing black population increasingly voted Democratic. Kelly was a proponent of desegregated schools and housing. He worked with Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt (D) to secure New Deal funding for Chicago.[16][17]
Patronage—a system in which the dispensation of jobs, contracts, and social services are connected to political support—became a regular part of mayoral politics during the tenures of Cermak and Kelly, according to the Encyclopedia of Chicago, which provided the following examples of patronage at work:[18]
| “ |
Job applicants and potential contractors were required to seek a written recommendation from local party officials before they would even be considered and were required to provide political work and financial support for the party. Failure to do so would result in firing or loss of contracts. This applied to most jobs and contracts, from the least skilled to the most professional. This system gave the party several resources: the ability to raise campaign money, an energetic army of campaign precinct workers, and enormous power over the selection and election of candidates.[3] |
” |
Richard J. Daley
| "Don’t worry if they’re Democrats or Republicans. Give them service and they’ll become Democrats."—Richard J. Daley[19] | |
As Cermak is recognized as the founder of "the machine," Richard J. Daley is considered to have brought it to its pinnacle.[16] He served as mayor from 1955 until his death in 1976; he was also chairman of the Cook County Democratic Central Committee from 1953 until his death. The influence he had in these two positions was described in the following way by the University of Illinois at Chicago Library:[20]
| “ |
As chairman of the central committee of the Democratic Party of Cook County...Daley exerted considerable influence over the slating of Democratic candidates. The central committee was composed of ward committeemen from each of the city’s 50 wards. Ward committeemen delivered city services and controlled the city’s 3,400 precinct captains, who were responsible for delivering the local vote. As both mayor and head of the local Democratic Party, Daley was believed to control over 40,000 patronage jobs.[3] |
” |
Chicago acquired the nickname "the city that works" during J. Daley's tenure. At the beginning of his term, a number of municipal projects led to new sewers, street lighting, police and fire personnel, parking facilities, and more. He also oversaw several large development projects during his tenure, including O'Hare airport, a local branch of the University of Illinois, and an expressway network.[20]
Spurred by changing demographics in the city, overlapping debates emerged around affirmative action, efforts to desegregate housing and schools, and levels of investment in Chicago's downtown area versus the South and West sides. Between 1970 and 1980, Chicago's poverty rate increased by 24 percent, to one in five residents. Poverty increased at the highest rates in the South and West sides of the city, where most of the residents were black.[21] By 1980, whites and blacks comprised nearly equal portions of Chicago's population at 43 percent and 40 percent, respectively; Hispanics comprised 14 percent.[22] J. Daley opposed affirmative action and targeted efforts to integrate Chicago's schools and housing units.[20][23]
Prohibitions on patronage
Along with changing demographics and policy debates, prohibitions on patronage throughout the 70s and 80s began to change the political landscape in Chicago.
In 1969, an independent candidate for delegate to the Illinois Constitutional Convention named Michael Shakman filed a federal lawsuit against "The Democratic Organization of Cook County," a defendant list that included several party officials, Mayor Daley, and the City of Chicago.[24] Shakman argued that the party's patronage practice put non-party candidates at an unconstitutional disadvantage. In 1972, the parties to the suit reached an agreement to prohibit firing and demoting government employees for political reasons.[25] A court order from 1983 led to a second agreement: The hiring and promotion of government employees could no longer be politically motivated.[26]
Washington: The anti-machine candidate
"The machine is mortally wounded," said Harold Washington shortly after being elected as Chicago's 41st mayor in 1983.[27] Washington was the city's first black mayor. Turnout in the 1983 election reached a record of 82 percent.[28] Washington received 52 percent of the vote, while his opponent, Bernard Epton, won more wards than any Republican since 1927, when the last Republican mayor was elected. Epton won 48 percent of the vote overall.
Washington ran on a platform that included increasing affordable housing, rehabilitating neighborhoods, and implementing affirmative action to increase numbers of blacks, Hispanics, and women in city government.[27] He served one full term and died shortly following his re-election in 1987.
Richard M. Daley: longest-serving mayor
Richard M. Daley, son of Richard J., was elected mayor in 1989 and served until his retirement in 2011. As of the 2019 election cycle, he was the longest-serving mayor in the city's history.
M. Daley "pulled together the remaining white ethnic machine bosses, Hispanics and white liberals, including a growing and politically viable gay community, to start a new mini-machine," according to NPR's David Schaper.[29] As mayor, he appointed a diverse cabinet.[30] Throughout his tenure, his share of the black vote increased.[31]
Throughout his tenure, M. Daley further developed the downtown area. His projects included Millenium Park in the Loop neighborhood and trees and flowers planted throughout the city. He faced criticism concerning levels of investment in the downtown area compared to other neighborhoods, as his father had, in addition to a growing budget deficit. Crain's Chicago Business said that Chicago's economic growth during this time was notable compared to other Rust Belt locations but that "the city is stuck with the debts Mr. Daley has piled up on infrastructure-rebuilding and gentrification, including the cost of projects such as the Olympics bid, Millennium Park, theater districts, median planters."[32]
Though the Shakman decrees prohibited politically motivated hirings and firings by 1983, concerns around patronage had not wholly dissipated. In 2005, two officials in M. Daley's administration—Robert A. Sorich of the mayor’s office of intergovernmental affairs and Patrick R. Slattery of the city’s department of streets and sanitation—were charged with violating the decrees in their hiring and promotion practices.[33]
As a result, the city's hiring and firing practices were subjected to federal oversight that continued until 2014, when Shakman filed a motion to end oversight and U.S. District Judge Sidney Shenkier agreed to do so.[34]
Mayors: 1837-2019
The following table lists Chicago mayors along with their party affiliations from 1837 to 2019.[11][35]
National significance
Chicago was the nation's second-largest city from 1890 to 1982.[36] Its population peaked at 3.6 million in the 1950 census.[37] As of 2017, Chicago was the third-largest city in the U.S. (population of 2.7 million) behind New York City (8.6 million) and Los Angeles (4 million).[38]
Due to the city's size and the strength of its Democratic Party organization, Chicago and its mayors have exerted influence beyond city boundaries. The following is a sampling of ways in which Chicago and its mayors have demonstrated national political significance throughout history:
- Through 2016, Chicago hosted more major-party conventions than any other U.S. city. It hosted 25 total—11 Democratic National Conventions and 14 Republican National Conventions between 1860 and 1996.[39] Philadelphia hosted nine total through 2016, and Baltimore hosted 10 (the last one being in 1912).[40]
- Anton Cermak, elected mayor in 1931, was an influential campaigner for Franklin D. Roosevelt in Cook County, which FDR won along with the 1932 presidential election overall. Cermak met with FDR in Miami ahead of the inauguration to discuss Roosevelt's appointments and New Deal funding for Chicago. Cermak was shot in a failed assassination attempt on FDR and died weeks later.[41][42]
- In 1960, Mayor Richard J. Daley campaigned for John F. Kennedy (D) during his presidential bid. Daley was also the chair of the Cook County Democratic Central Committee, which History.com referred to as "the strongest political organization in the country." Kennedy won Illinois' delegates at the party convention and the state's electoral votes in the general election.[43] In 1960, Illinois had 27 electoral votes—the fourth-highest share of any state.[44]
- During his one full term as mayor, Harold Washington assumed a position of prominence within the U.S. Conference of Mayors. Washington was set to host the Conference's annual meeting in 1988, but he died shortly after his re-election in 1987.[45] From the platform of the group, he criticized Republican Pres. Ronald Reagan's budget policy, which included reducing federal funding to cities in an effort to reduce the federal deficit.[46][47] Washington was Chicago's first black mayor.
- "In 1992, Chicago and Illinois were crucial to Bill Clinton and the Democratic Party," said David Wilhelm. "The Democratic nomination for all intents and purposes was won here."[48] Wilhelm served as Clinton's campaign manager in 1992 and as campaign manager to Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley (son of Richard J. Daley) in 1989 and '91.[49] Bill Daley—a 2019 mayoral candidate and the brother of Richard M. Daley—worked on his brother's campaigns and was named campaign chair for Al Gore's presidential bid in 2000.[50]
- Rahm Emanuel held a number of top positions within the Democratic Party before running for mayor, including: White House senior adviser under Pres. Bill Clinton; U.S. House Democratic Caucus chair during his time as a representative; chairman of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee; and White House chief of staff under Pres. Barack Obama.
Election results: 1975-2019
In 1995, the city switched from holding plurality-winner primary and general elections for citywide offices to holding general elections that require a candidate to receive more than 50 percent of the vote to win without a runoff.[51]
Voter turnout in municipal elections
The following chart shows turnout among registered voters in Chicago for general and special municipal elections held between 1951 and 2019. Special elections were held in 1977 following the death of Richard J. Daley and 1989 following the death of Harold Washington.
Voter turnout peaked at 82 percent in the 1983 election, won by Harold Washington. Turnout was at a low of 33 percent in 2007, when Richard M. Daley was elected to his fifth full term (he served half a term after winning the 1989 special election). Voter turnout was also at 33 percent for 2019's runoff election.
2019
Lori Lightfoot defeated Toni Preckwinkle in the mayoral runoff election on April 2, 2019. The two advanced from a 14-candidate field in the Feb. 26 general election. Click here for full coverage of the general election and here for full coverage of the runoff.
General runoff election
General runoff election for Mayor of Chicago
Lori Lightfoot defeated Toni Preckwinkle in the general runoff election for Mayor of Chicago on April 2, 2019.
Candidate | % | Votes | ||
| ✔ |  | Lori Lightfoot (Nonpartisan) | 73.7 | 386,039 |
 | Toni Preckwinkle (Nonpartisan) | 26.3 | 137,765 | |
| Total votes: 523,804 | |||
 = candidate completed the Ballotpedia Candidate Connection survey. | ||||
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General election
General election for Mayor of Chicago
The following candidates ran in the general election for Mayor of Chicago on February 26, 2019.
Candidate | % | Votes | ||
| ✔ | | Lori Lightfoot (Nonpartisan) | 17.5 | 97,667 |
| ✔ | | Toni Preckwinkle (Nonpartisan) | 16.0 | 89,343 |
 | Bill Daley (Nonpartisan) | 14.8 | 82,294 | |
 | Willie Wilson (Nonpartisan) | 10.6 | 59,072 | |
 | Susana Mendoza (Nonpartisan) | 9.0 | 50,373 | |
 | Amara Enyia (Nonpartisan) | 8.0 | 44,589 | |
 | Jerry Joyce (Nonpartisan) | 7.2 | 40,099 | |
 | Gery Chico (Nonpartisan) | 6.2 | 34,521 | |
 | Paul Vallas (Nonpartisan) | 5.4 | 30,236 | |
 | Garry McCarthy (Nonpartisan) | 2.7 | 14,784 | |
 | La Shawn Ford (Nonpartisan) | 1.0 | 5,606 | |
 | Bob Fioretti (Nonpartisan) | 0.8 | 4,302 | |
 | John Kozlar (Nonpartisan) | 0.4 | 2,349 | |
 | Neal Sáles-Griffin (Nonpartisan) | 0.3 | 1,523 | |
| Other/Write-in votes | 0.0 | 86 | ||
| Total votes: 556,844 | |||
| = candidate completed the Ballotpedia Candidate Connection survey. | ||||
| If you are a candidate and would like to tell readers and voters more about why they should vote for you, complete the Ballotpedia Candidate Connection Survey. | ||||
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Withdrawn or disqualified candidates
- Catherine Brown D'Tycoon (Nonpartisan)
- Dorothy Brown (Nonpartisan)
- Ja'Mal Green (Nonpartisan)
- Conrien Hykes Clark (Nonpartisan)
- Sandra Mallory (Nonpartisan)
- Richard Mayers (Nonpartisan)
- Roger Washington (Nonpartisan)
2015
In 2015, Chicago saw its first mayoral runoff election. From a general election candidate field of five, Emanuel and Jesus "Chuy" Garcia advanced to a runoff, where Emanuel won by 12 percentage points.
Key issues in the 2015 mayoral race included the closing of 50 schools during Emanuel's first term, whether the school board of Chicago Public Schools should be elected or remain appointed by the mayor, and the city's downgraded debt rating. In February 2015, the bond-rating service Moody's downgraded Chicago to Baa2, a mid-to-low level rating that sits two positions up from what financial analysts call “junk,” a status that indicates high risks for bondholders. Moody's cited unfunded pension obligations as the main reason for the downgrade.
Election results
| Mayor of Chicago, Runoff Election, 2015 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
 Rahm Emanuel Incumbent |
56.2% | 332,171 | |
| Jesus "Chuy" Garcia | 43.8% | 258,562 | |
| Total Votes | 590,733 | ||
| Source: Chicago Board of Election Commissioners, "Official runoff election results," accessed July 9, 2015 | |||
| Mayor of Chicago, General Election, 2015 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Rahm Emanuel Incumbent |
45.6% | 218,217 | |
| Jesus "Chuy" Garcia |
33.5% | 160,414 | |
| Willie Wilson | 10.7% | 50,960 | |
| Robert W. "Bob" Fioretti | 7.4% | 35,363 | |
| William "Dock" Walls, III | 2.8% | 13,250 | |
| Total Votes | 478,204 | ||
| Source: Chicago Board of Election Commissioners, "Official general election results," accessed July 9, 2015 | |||
The map below shows results for the 2015 general and runoff elections by precinct as well as vote total differences between the two elections. As of 2013, Chicago had 2,069 precincts. The number of precincts within each of the city's 50 wards ranged from 23 precincts in the 12th Ward to 57 in the 19th Ward.[52]
2011
The mayoral seat was open in 2011 as longtime incumbent Richard M. Daley did not seek re-election. Major issues in the election included how to approach the city's $655 million budget deficit and the city's growing unfunded pension obligation. Candidates debated how to reduce the cost of city services and raise revenues.[53][54][55]
| Mayor of Chicago, General Election, 2011 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Rahm Emanuel |
55.3% | 326,331 | |
| Gery Chico | 23.9% | 141,228 | |
| Miguel Del Valle | 9.3% | 54,689 | |
| Carol Moseley Braun | 9% | 53,062 | |
| Patricia Van Pelt-Watkins | 1.6% | 9,704 | |
| Dock Walls | 0.9% | 5,343 | |
| Total Votes | 585,014 | ||
| Source: Chicago Board of Election Commissioners, "Official general election results," accessed July 9, 2015 | |||
2007
| Mayor of Chicago, General Election, 2007 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Richard M. Daley Incumbent |
71% | 324,519 | |
| Dorothy Brown | 20.1% | 91,878 | |
| William "Dock" Walls, III | 8.8% | 40,368 | |
| Total Votes | 456,765 | ||
| Source: Chicago Board of Election Commissioners, "Election results," accessed December 7, 2018 | |||
2003
| Mayor of Chicago, General Election, 2003 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Richard M. Daley Incumbent |
78.5% | 363,389 | |
| Paul L. Jakes Jr. | 14% | 64,929 | |
| Patricia McAllister | 5.9% | 27,343 | |
| Joseph McAfee | 1.6% | 7,484 | |
| Total Votes | 463,145 | ||
| Source: Chicago Board of Election Commissioners, "Election results," accessed December 7, 2018 | |||
1999
| Mayor of Chicago, General Election, 1999 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Richard M. Daley Incumbent |
71.9% | 428,872 | |
| Bobby Rush | 28.1% | 167,709 | |
| Total Votes | 596,581 | ||
| Source: Chicago Democracy Project, "Choose Election: Mayor," accessed December 7, 2018 | |||
1995
| Mayor of Chicago, General Election, 1995 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Richard M. Daley Incumbent |
60.1% | 359,466 | |
| Roland W. Burris | 36.3% | 217,024 | |
| Raymond Wardingley | 2.8% | 16,568 | |
| Lawrence C. Redmond | 0.9% | 5,160 | |
| Total Votes | 598,218 | ||
| Source: Chicago Democracy Project, "Choose Election: Mayor," accessed December 7, 2018 | |||
1991
| Mayor of Chicago, General Election, 1991 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Party | Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Democratic | Richard M. Daley Incumbent |
70.6% | 450,581 | |
| Harold Washington Party | R. Eugene Pincham | 25.1% | 160,302 | |
| Republican | George S. Gottlieb | 3.7% | 23,421 | |
| Socialist Workers | James Warren | 0.6% | 3,581 | |
| Total Votes | 637,885 | |||
| Source: Chicago Democracy Project, "Choose Election: Mayor," accessed December 7, 2018 | ||||
1989 special election
A special election was held following Harold Washington's death. Eugene Sawyer was acting mayor at the time of the election.
| Mayor of Chicago, Special General Election, 1989 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Party | Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Democratic | Richard M. Daley |
55.4% | 576,620 | |
| Harold Washington Party | Timothy C. Evans | 41.1% | 427,954 | |
| Republican | Edward R. Vrdolyak | 3.5% | 35,964 | |
| Total Votes | 1,040,538 | |||
| Source: Chicago Democracy Project, "Choose Election: Mayor," accessed December 7, 2018 | ||||
1987
| Mayor of Chicago, General Election, 1987 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Party | Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Democratic | Harold Washington Incumbent |
53.8% | 600,252 | |
| Solidarity | Edward Vrdolyak | 42% | 468,444 | |
| Republican | Donald Haider | 4.3% | 47,648 | |
| Total Votes | 1,116,344 | |||
| Source: Chicago Democracy Project, "Choose Election: Mayor," accessed December 7, 2018 | ||||
1983
| Mayor of Chicago, General Election, 1983 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Party | Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Democratic | Harold Washington |
51.7% | 667,552 | |
| Republican | Bernard Epton | 48% | 620,003 | |
| Socialist Workers | Ed Warren | 0.3% | 3,752 | |
| Total Votes | 1,291,307 | |||
| Source: Chicago Democracy Project, "Choose Election: Mayor," accessed December 7, 2018 | ||||
1979
| Mayor of Chicago, General Election, 1979 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Party | Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Democratic | Jane Byrne |
82.1% | 700,874 | |
| Republican | Wallace D. Johnson | 16.1% | 137,663 | |
| Socialist Workers | Andrew Pulley | 1.8% | 15,625 | |
| Total Votes | 854,162 | |||
| Source: Chicago Democracy Project, "Choose Election: Mayor," accessed December 7, 2018 | ||||
1977 special election
A special election was held following the death of Richard J. Daley. Michael Bilandic was acting mayor at the time of the special election.
| Mayor of Chicago, General Election, 1977 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Party | Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Democratic | Michael Bilandic Incumbent |
77.4% | 490,688 | |
| Republican | Dennis H. Bloc | 21.3% | 135,281 | |
| Socialist Workers | Dennis Brasky | 0.9% | 5,547 | |
| U.S. Labor | Gerald Rose | 0.4% | 2,498 | |
| Total Votes | 634,014 | |||
1975
| Mayor of Chicago, General Election, 1975 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Party | Candidate | Vote % | Votes | |
| Democratic | Richard J. Daley Incumbent |
77.7% | 542,831 | |
| Republican | John J. Hoellen | 19.9% | 139,223 | |
| Socialist Workers | Willie Mae Reid | 2.4% | 16,698 | |
| Total Votes | 698,752 | |||
See also
| Chicago, Illinois | Illinois | Municipal government | Other local coverage |
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External links
Footnotes
- ↑ Encyclopedia of Chicago, "Government, City of Chicago," accessed December 3, 2018
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Pierce, Bessie Louise. ''A History of Chicago, Volume II, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2007 (p. 304)
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Note: This text is quoted verbatim from the original source. Any inconsistencies are attributable to the original source.
- ↑ The New York Times, "Chicago's Mayor Gains School Control That New York's Mayor Would Envy," June 25, 1995
- ↑ The Civic Federation, "Chicago Public Schools Board of Education Governance: A History and Review of Other Cities’ Practices," June 8, 2017
- ↑ City of Chicago, "2018 Budget Ordinance," accessed December 4, 2018
- ↑ The Iowa Legislature, "2017 Session Fiscal Report," July 2017
- ↑ United States Census Bureau, "QuickFacts, Chicago city, Illinois," accessed August 1, 2019
- ↑ United States Census Bureau, "QuickFacts, Iowa," accessed August 1, 2019
- ↑ National Association of State Budget Officers, "2018 State Expenditure Report," accessed December 4, 2018
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Encyclopedia of Chicago, "Chicago Mayors, 1837-2007," accessed December 6, 2018
- ↑ Britannica, "Anton J. Cermak," accessed December 7, 2018
- ↑ Chicago Tribune, "The Shooting of Anton Cermak," December 19, 2007
- ↑ Encyclopedia of Chicago, "Politics," accessed December 7, 2018
- ↑ The Newberry, "Chicago and the Great Migration, 1915–1950," accessed December 7, 2018
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Encyclopedia of Chicago, "Machine Politics," accessed December 7, 2018
- ↑ The University of Chicago, "Politics: A Short History," accessed December 7, 2018
- ↑ Encyclopedia of Chicago, "Patronage," accessed December 7, 2018
- ↑ Chicago magazine, "Obama's Power Problem," October 9, 2012
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 University of Illinois at Chicago Library, "Remembering Richard J. Daley," accessed December 7, 2018
- ↑ Encyclopedia of Chicago, "Increases in Poverty, 1970-1980," accessed December 7, 2018
- ↑ HUD User, "SOCDS Census Data: Output for Chicago city, IL," accessed December 7, 2018
- ↑ Encyclopedia of Chicago, "Daley's Chicago," accessed December 7, 2018
- ↑ Justia, "Shakman v. Democratic Organization of Cook County, 356 F. Supp. 1241 (N.D. Ill. 1972)," accessed December 7, 2018
- ↑ Encyclopedia of Chicago, "Shakman Decrees," accessed December 7, 2018
- ↑ FindLaw, "Shakman v. City of Chicago," accessed December 7 2018
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 The New York Times, "Chicago Mayor-Elect Vows Demise of Political Machine," April 15, 1983
- ↑ CityLab, "Voter Turnout in U.S. Mayoral Elections Is Pathetic, But It Wasn't Always This Way," May 22, 2015
- ↑ NPR, "Daley May Outlast Father As Chicago Mayor," August 24, 2008
- ↑ Northern Illinois University Libraries, "Mayor Richard M. Daley: the Adapter instead of Boss II," June 1989
- ↑ The New York Times, "The Daley Legacy, Inescapable,' September 12, 2010
- ↑ Crain's Chicago Business, "Mayor Daley runs up big debts building his global city; what about the rest of Chicago?" June 12, 2010
- ↑ United States Department of Justice, "U.S. Charges Two City of Chicago Officials with Fraudulently Rigging Hiring and Promotions," July 18, 2005
- ↑ ABC Chicago, "Judge lifts Shakman decree federal oversight on Chicago hiring," June 16, 2014
- ↑ Chicago Public Library, "Chicago Mayors," accessed December 20, 2018
- ↑ The New York Times, "Los Angeles Replaces Chicago as Second City," April 8, 1984
- ↑ Encyclopedia of Chicago, "Demography," accessed December 6, 2018
- ↑ United States Census Bureau, "Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places of 50,000 or More, Ranked by July 1, 2017 Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2017," accessed December 4, 2018
- ↑ Encyclopedia of Chicago, "Political Conventions," accessed December 4, 2018
- ↑ The Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia, "Political Conventions," accessed December 4, 2018
- ↑ Spartacus Educational, "Anton Cermak," accessed December 4, 2018
- ↑ Miami Herald, "He took a shot at a president-elect, and could have changed history," February 6, 2017
- ↑ History, "Richard Daley," accessed December 4, 2018
- ↑ 270 to Win, "1960 Presidential Election," accessed December 5, 2018
- ↑ Chicago Reporter, "Thirty-five years ago, Harold Washington changed what Chicago’s mayor could be," May 2, 2018
- ↑ Chicago Tribune, "Mayors Give Reagan a Big-City Razzing," March 27, 1985
- ↑ Chicago Tribune, "Mayor Speaks in Puerto Rico but He's Talking to Chicago," June 22, 1986
- ↑ UIC University Library, "Bob Crawford audio archive, entry 'Pols10,'" accessed December 4, 2018
- ↑ Chicago Tribune, "Wilhelm Launches Bid for Seat Held by Simon," June 8, 1995
- ↑ Chicago Tribune, "Daley to Lead Gore Campaign," June 16, 2000
- ↑ Encyclopedia of Chicago, "Government, City of Chicago," accessed November 13, 2018
- ↑ Chicago Board of Election Commissioners, "District Precinct Schedules," accessed December 13, 2018
- ↑ CBS Chicago, "Mayoral Debate Focuses On Issues, Not Emanuel," January 28, 2011
- ↑ Christian Science Monitor, "Chicago mayor's race: What the candidates promise," February 17, 2011
- ↑ The New York Times, "Emanuel Says He Favors Reduced Pensions for Current Workers and New Hires," January 8, 2011
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