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Ballotpedia's Policy Guide
On this page, you will find introductions to 10 policy areas ranging from election administration to tax policy. The guides are meant to provide Ballotpedia readers with neutral, accessible introductions to key policy areas:
- Election administration
- K-12 education
- Marijuana legalization
- Environmental, social, and corporate governance (ESG)
- Abortion
- Extreme risk protection orders
- Public-sector unions
- U.S. healthcare system
- Immigration and border security
- U.S. tax system
- Click here to learn about voting in your state
Election administration
- See also: Election administration by state
What is election administration?
Election administration refers to a state's voting policies and methods of enforcing them. These policies dictate who can vote and under what conditions. Election administration in the U.S. is largely decentralized. Administrators at the state and local level are responsible for running elections—everything from maintaining voter registration records to counting ballots. As a result, election laws and procedures vary widely among states and localities.
What policies fall under the election administration?
Topics that fall under election administration include absentee/mail-in voting policies, alternative voting methods (ranked-choice voting, non-traditional primaries, etc), audits and oversight of elections, ballot access, ballots and voting materials, election dates and deadlines, and more.
What are the main political disagreements over election administration?
Legislative debates over election administration fall largely along party lines. have fallen along partisan lines. In recent years, Republican legislators have tended to focus on bills strengthening voter ID rules and election security, while Democratic legislators have tended to focus on bills that expand access to voting through policies like automatic voter registration and adding more absentee ballot drop boxes.
Who runs elections in the U.S.?
Administrators at the state and local level are responsible for running elections, from maintaining voter registration records to counting ballots. Each state has an agency that manages elections. Responsibilities of the state-level office often include training local elections officials, maintaining a voter registration database, and offering guidance on the testing of voting machines. At the local level, county governments are most commonly responsible for election administration, rather than city or town governments. On the national level, the Federal Election Commission (FEC) is responsible for enforcing federal campaign finance laws.
What is online voter registration?
Online voter registration allows citizens to register to vote over the internet.
What is early voting?
Early voting permits citizens to cast ballots in person at a polling place prior to an election. In states that permit no-excuse early voting, a voter does not have to provide an excuse for being unable to vote on Election Day. Some states allow voters to cast absentee ballots in person. States that allow in-person absentee voting without an excuse are counted below among no-excuse early voting states.
What is absentee/mail-in voting?
Voting that does not happen in person on Election Day but instead occurs another way (generally by mail). All states allow for some form of absentee/mail-in balloting.
What is a primary election?
Primaries allow voters to play a role in determining which candidates compete in the general election. Rules governing primary elections vary by state.
Should states require an ID to vote? If so, which IDs?
Some states require voters to present an approved form of identification. In some cases, the required identification must include a photo. Several states that do not require identification generally require first-time voters to present identification at the polls. Other states that don't generally require identification may require it if the voter did not provide proper identification to register. Federal law requires newly registered voters to provide either a driver's license number or the last four digits of their Social Security numbers at the time of registration.
What methods do states use to prevent election fraud?
Election fraud is illegal interference with the process of an election. States attempt to address election fraud in a variety of ways. Each state has a chief official (usually the secretary of state) in charge of overseeing an elections department, which is tasked with maintaining voter registration rolls and carrying out the election. Each state also has a department, typically under the attorney general's office, tasked with investigating allegations of election fraud and enforcing the state's laws. The U.S. Department of Justice is responsible for investigating allegations of election fraud in federal elections.
What rules should govern absentee/mail-in voting?
Every state allows voters to cast ballots without visiting a physical polling place. Some states require election administrators to mail a ballot or ballot application to all voters. Others require voters to request mail-in ballots. Mail-in voting may be restricted to voters who meet certain eligibility requirements in states where voters must request a ballot.
Can candidates win an election if they have already conceded?
After the publishing of unofficial election results, a candidate may give a statement conceding the election to his or her opponent. That concession, however, is not legally binding, and the candidate can still be declared the winner based on final election results. The outcome of an election is finalized during a process called the canvassing and certification of the vote. During this process, elections officials verify that votes were counted correctly. Officials review rejected ballots and finish tallying write-in, provisional, and mail-in ballots. State laws set different deadlines for when the process must be completed.
Should states restrict the private funding of election administration?
Nonprofit organizations, such as the Center for Tech and Civic Life (CTCL), have previously provided grants to local election offices. Some states have banned election officials from accepting such grants.
How should states regulate vote counting policies?
States differ on when election officials can begin counting absentee/mail-in voting. Some states allow officials to begin processing and counting ballots before Election Day. In others, officials must wait until Election Day or later to do so.
What are some alternative voting methods in use today?
Most elections in the U.S. use a plurality voting system, where the winning candidate is the one who received the highest number of votes. Recently, states and local governments have adopted alternative voting systems for some elections, including ranked-choice voting. In a ranked-choice voting system, voters rank candidates in order of preference. Over the course of one or more rounds of counting, candidates with fewer votes are eliminated and their votes redistributed to the remaining candidates.
How should states treat voting rights for people convicted of a felony?
Voting rights for people convicted of a felony vary from state to state. In some states, people convicted of a felony can vote while jailed. In others, people convicted of a felony automatically have their voting rights restored following the completion of their sentence. Some states do not automatically restore voting rights for people convicted of a felony, and may only do so on a case-by-case basis.
Who can file election-related lawsuits?
If a dispute arises during an election, the usual means of resolving it is through the courts. In order for the court to rule on an election-related lawsuit, the person or group filing the lawsuit, known as a plaintiff, must have standing. Government officials, voters, candidates, campaigns, and satellite groups have all had standing to file various election-related lawsuits. In order to have standing, they must show that some action or policy affected or will affect them negatively and that there is a way to remedy that negative effect.
K-12 education
- See also: K-12 education policy
How does kindergarten through 12th grade public education work in the United States?
Primary and secondary education in the United States includes private and government-funded options. The public education system encompasses the approximately 13,000 taxpayer-funded school districts in the U.S. that provide instruction for kindergarten through grade 12. Public schools receive the majority of their funding from state and local governments and are overseen by more than 82,000 locally elected school board members. The public education system also includes charter schools, which provide a tuition-free, government-funded education but are exempt from many of the rules and regulations governing traditional public schools.
What are public schools districts?
Public school districts are geographical units for the local administration of elementary or secondary schools. School boards most often govern school districts.
What are charter schools?
Charter schools are a category of tuition-free, publicly-funded, independently run schools. These schools are exempt from many of the requirements imposed by state and local boards of education regarding hiring and curriculum.
How do school boards work?
School boards provide oversight and governance for a school district and its schools. In most districts, residents elect school board members. In some cases, mayors or other officials may appoint school board members. School boards hire the superintendent, develop systems of accountability and set the district’s direction, control the budget, and solicit input from the community.
What educational opportunities exist outside the public school system?
Educational opportunities exist outside the public school system, and include private schools and homeschooling. In some states, families have the option of using taxpayer dollars to send their children to schools outside the public school system, like private schools. These options come in many forms and include Education Savings Accounts (ESAs), vouchers, and education tax credits.
What are the political disagreements over K-12 public education?
At the state level, Republican lawmakers have generally supported legislation that would expand taxpayer funding to defray the costs of private education or homeschooling. Democratic lawmakers have generally opposed those efforts, arguing policies like ESAs and vouchers will take money out of public schools and disadvantage students whose families cannot afford to send them to private schools.
What approaches are states taking to increase student test scores?
Lawmakers have advanced a myriad of policies for raising student test scores. One approach emphasizes policies that equalize funding between and within school districts. Local school funding relies heavily on property taxes, which vary from neighborhood to neighborhood. Districts in more affluent neighborhoods tend to receive more taxes, and therefore more funding. Policies to counteract funding disparities include statewide property or sales taxes, equalization formulas that redistribute funding from wealthier districts to poorer districts, and revised funding formulas. Another approach emphasizes attracting and retaining quality teachers through higher salaries and benefits, performance-based incentives, loan forgiveness programs, and career advance opportunities. Finally, lawmakers have proposed providing students with taxpayer funding to attend educational organizations outside the public school system.
How should states fund K-12 public education?
State and local governments provide the majority of funding for public schools, with less than 10% of the total coming from the federal government. Most local sources of funding come from property taxes, which can contribute to funding disparities between districts. The more affluent an area, the more those households tend to pay in property taxes, creating funding disparities between districts. State funding is generally based on complex funding formulas that determine how much districts receive. Funding formulas fall into one of two categories—student-based and resource-based. Some education scholars have argued for more state and federal funding to supplement property taxes in poorer districts and provide more financial stability during economic downturns. Others have argued that public school funding has increased over time and that districts need to focus more on how they spend money and employ resources than on the total level of funding.
What role should parents play in public education?
Parents play a vital role in educating children outside the classroom, but policymakers and lawmakers have differed over the role parents should play in influencing instruction in the classroom. Some have argued that parents should have a direct seat at the table when it comes to selecting curriculum and library books, while others have said parents should provide input at board meetings but that educators and education professionals on state and local boards are best equipped to set standards and select instructional material.
Should states approach standardized testing?
Standardized tests allow families, school administrators, and lawmakers to compare student scores and provide accountability and transparency, but critics argue standardized tests don’t accurately measure academic performance and fail to take into account different styles of learning. The origins of measuring academic performance in the U.S. date back to the 1830s, in Massachusetts. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 encouraged adoption of standardized testing by all states. This legislation required states to measure student proficiency and develop accountability measures for public schools. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 continued the ESEA's focus on accountability by requiring states to ensure minimum proficiency levels in order to receive federal funds. In 2015, President Barack Obama (D) signed the Every Student Succeeds Act, replacing NCLB and reauthorized the ESEA.
Marijuana legalization
What is cannabis and how is it related to marijuana?
Marijuana is a slang term that refers to the cannabis plant. Cannabis is a green-gray flowering plant that contains the psychoactive chemical THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol). THC produces an intoxicating effect, and can be ingested orally or smoked.
What is the history of marijuana laws in the United States?
Marijuana has been illegal in the United States since 1937, when Congress prohibited its use for recreational, industrial, and therapeutic purposes with the Marihuana [sic] Act of 1937. Under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970, the drug and all its cannabinoid forms were classified as Schedule I substances, belonging to the same class as heroin (cocaine, by contrast, is a Substance II drug).
When was marijuana first legalized in the United States?
The first marijuana-related ballot measure appeared in California in 1972. Proposition 19, which would have decriminalized the use of marijuana by adults, was defeated 66.5 % to 33.47%. California's Proposition 215 legalized the medical use of marijuana in 1996. In 2012, voters in Colorado and Washington became the first to legalize recreational marijuana when they did so through citizen initiatives.
What is the difference between recreational and medicinal marijuana?
In states that allow for recreational marijuana, residents over a certain age can purchase and use marijuana for personal pleasure or social purposes without needing a medical prescription. A medical prescription is required in states that have only legalized medical marijuana.
What are the politics of marijuana legalization?
Although Republicans are more likely than Democrats to oppose legalizing marijuana or medical marijuana, marijuana legalization at the state level has not followed strict partisan lines. For example, voters in states with Republican trifectas, like Oklahoma and Missouri, have approved ballot measures legalizing medical marijuana and recreational marijuana, respectively.
What are the arguments for legalizing marijuana?
Supporters of legalizing marijuana argue that prohibition has been expensive and unsuccessful. Supporters say marijuana is, like alcohol, safe when used responsibly, and that legalization would provide governments with new sources of revenue.
What are the arguments against legalizing marijuana?
Opponents of legalizing marijuana argue it can be addicting, and that increased availability will lead to greater substance abuse issues. Opponents say that the science is unclear on the health consequences of long-term marijuana use.
How do states with recreational marijuana structure marijuana taxes?
States with laws permitting recreational marijuana structure taxes on marijuana in different ways. In some states, marijuana taxes are based on a percentage of the prices, like a standard sales tax. In others, governments might tax the final product based on the level of THC in the product or tax producers based on the weight of the product.
Environmental, social, and corporate governance (ESG)
What is ESG?
Environmental, social, and corporate governance (ESG) is an investment philosophy that says investors should consider how a company aligns with a set of views on climate change, social justice, and diversity, in addition to expected financial returns. Although ESG is an approach to investing, it has a strong connection to public policy through the management of public funds. States manage billions of dollars of funds, including those in state pension plans, and often contract with asset management companies to direct their investment strategy.
What are the politics of ESG?
Republicans have generally opposed consideration of environmental, social, and governance factors in investing, arguing that ESG advances liberal social and political goals through financial tools. Republican state financial officers, like treasurers and comptrollers, have supported legislation prohibiting ESG criteria in state investment plans. Democrats have generally supported ESG criteria in investing, arguing that things like climate change risk can affect financial returns. Democratic state financial officers have supported ESG criteria in state investment plans, and have opposed efforts to prohibit the use of such considerations on the grounds that lawmakers should not limit investors’ professional choices about how best to maximize returns.
What are the main arguments in support of the use of ESG factors in investing?
Supporters of ESG investing argue that in the long run, investments that take into account environmental, social, and governance factors will generate superior financial returns and that corporations should prioritize activities and goals that will benefit society beyond the narrow focus on business growth. Proponents also argue that ESG practices can boost employee engagement and productivity and foster stronger customer loyalty.
What are the main arguments against the use of ESG factors in investing?
Opponents argue that ESG investments sacrifice financial returns to advance a leftwing social and economic agenda. Opponents also argue ESG poses a risk to state and local economies reliant on coal, gas, and oil, and require executives to work for activists, not shareholders.
What is an asset management company (AMC)?
An AMC is a firm that invests and manages funds on behalf of clients. Most AMCs operate as fiduciary firms—meaning that they are legally required to make investment decisions in the best interest of their clients. States often hire AMCs to manage their public pension investments.
What is a public pension?
Public pensions are federal, state, and local programs that provide retirement income to state employees. Public pensions are funded through employee contributions. Contributions are invested in stocks, bonds, real estate, and other assets, with the goal of generating positive returns.
What is the stakeholder model of the corporation?
The stakeholder model of the corporation is a theory of corporate governance that argues the firm should serve the wider interests of stakeholders rather than those of shareholders only.
What is the shareholder model of the corporation?
The shareholder model of the corporation is a theory of corporate governance that argues that shareholders should own and manage the corporation with a view to maximizing the financial returns on their investments.
What is a state financial officer?
State financial officers are elected officials responsible for auditing other government offices, managing payroll, and overseeing pensions. Different states have different names for these elected officials, but they all fall into three groups: treasurers, auditors, and controllers.
Abortion
- See also: History of abortion ballot measures
What is the early history of abortion regulation and policies in the U.S.?
The first law banning abortions in the U.S. was enacted in Connecticut in 1821. That law banned abortions after the quickening—the time when a woman first feels the fetus move, typically in the fourth month of pregnancy. By the 1880s, all states had laws criminalizing abortions. In 1970, four states (Alaska, Hawaii, New York, and Washington) became the first to repeal bans on abortion after viability.
What are some notable SCOTUS decisions about abortion?
In 1965, the Supreme Court decided Griswold v. Connecticut, ruling 7-2 that an 1879 Connecticut law banning the use of contraception violated citizens' right to privacy—a line of reasoning the Supreme Court applied to abortion in Roe v. Wade in 1973. The U.S. Supreme Court decided Roe in 1973, striking down a Texas statute banning abortions in a 7-2 ruling. The court held that a woman's right to an abortion was protected by the Fourteenth Amendment, which guarantees a right to privacy. Justice Harry Blackmun authored the court's majority opinion in which he offered differing rules for each trimester. This ruling effectively legalized abortion across the United States. In 1992, the Supreme Court decided Planned Parenthood v. Casey, which created a new legal standard of an undue burden for considering whether an abortion law is constitutional. The 5-4 decision was authored by three justices: Sandra Day O'Connor, Anthony Kennedy, and David Souter. It threw out the trimester precedent established in Roe and said that states may not place a "substantial obstacle in the path of a woman seeking an abortion before the fetus attains viability." Unlike in Roe, the court permitted states to regulate abortion during the first trimester if the regulations did not create an undue burden. In 2022, The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization that the Constitution does not grant the right to an abortion, overturning the court’s previous rulings in Roe v. Wade and Planned Parenthood v. Casey. The ruling returned the legality of abortion to the states.
What is the history of abortion-related ballot measures?
The first abortion-related measure to appear on a ballot was Washington Referendum 20 in 1970, which voters approved 56.49% to 43.51%. The measure legalized abortion in the early stages of a pregnancy and required that before an abortion could be performed, a married woman's husband must consent or a woman's parents must consent when she is unmarried and under the age of 18. From 1970 to November 2022, there were 53 abortion-related ballot measures, and 43 (81%) of these had the support of organizations that described themselves as pro-life. Voters approved 11 (26%) and rejected 32 (74%) of these 43 ballot measures. The other 10 abortion-related ballot measures had the support of organizations that described themselves as pro-choice or pro-reproductive rights. Voters approved seven (70%) and rejected three (30%).
Where do Republicans and Democrats differ on abortion policy?
Republicans have generally adopted the term pro-life to describe their support for laws that limit the availability of abortion. Democrats have generally adopted the term pro-choice to describe their support for laws that increase the availability of abortion. However, these terms are contested. Those who support access to abortion may use terms like reproductive freedom and abortion rights supporter as alternatives to pro-choice. The most recent Democratic Party platform states: “President Biden, Vice President Harris, and Democrats are committed to restoring the reproductive rights Trump ripped away. With a Democratic Congress, we will pass national legislation to make Roe the law of the land again. We will strengthen access to contraception so every woman who needs it is able to get and afford it. We will protect a woman’s right to access IVF. We will repeal the Hyde Amendment. And in his second term, President Biden will continue to support access to FDA-approved medication abortion, appoint leaders at the FDA who respect science, and appoint judges who uphold fundamental freedoms.” The most recent Republican Party platform states: “We proudly stand for families and Life. We believe that the 14th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States guarantees that no person can be denied Life or Liberty without Due Process, and that the States are, therefore, free to pass Laws protecting those Rights. After 51 years, because of us, that power has been given to the States and to a vote of the People. We will oppose Late Term Abortion, while supporting mothers and policies that advance Prenatal Care, access to Birth Control, and IVF (fertility treatments).”
What does the polling show about opinions on abortion regulations?
Gallup, a polling and analytics company, has surveyed registered voters each year about where they stand on abortion since 1975. One question they ask voters is “Do you think abortions should be legal under any circumstances, legal only under certain circumstances or illegal in all circumstances?” Between 1975 and 2023, an average of 27% of registered voters said abortion should be legal under any circumstances. An average of 53% said abortion should be legal only under certain circumstances. An average of 18% said abortion should be illegal in all circumstances. Click here to see more polling data abortion.
How do states regulate abortion? State governments regulate abortion through a variety of mechanisms, including restrictions on abortion after a certain point in the pregnancy. Terms used to describe states' thresholds for abortion restriction include the following:
- Conception: This threshold prohibits all abortions after conception, although some states provide exceptions if the woman's life or health is threatened.
- Fetal heartbeat: This threshold restricts abortions after a fetal heartbeat can be detected, which may begin six weeks after the last menstrual period.
- Fetal viability: In Roe v. Wade, SCOTUS defined fetal viability. The Supreme Court further noted that "viability is usually placed at about seven months (28 weeks) but may occur earlier, even at 24 weeks."
- Last menstrual period: This threshold marks the beginning of a pregnancy from the first day of a woman's last menstrual period.
- Post-fertilization: Thresholds using post-fertilization mark the beginning of pregnancy at the time of conception, which can occur up to 24 hours following intercourse. A threshold of 20 weeks post-fertilization is equivalent to 22 weeks since last menstrual period.
- Post-implantation: Thresholds using post-implantation mark the beginning of pregnancy at the date on which a fertilized egg adheres to the lining of the uterus, roughly five days after fertilization. A threshold of 24 weeks post-implantation is equivalent to 27 weeks since the last menstrual period.
- Other restrictions on abortion access include mandatory waiting period laws that require a person seeking an abortion to receive counseling and wait a certain amount of time before undergoing the procedure and parental consent laws that apply to individuals under 18. Additionally, states may regulate where abortion clinics can operate and who can perform abortion procedures.
Extreme risk protection orders (ERPOs)
What are extreme risk protection orders?
Extreme risk protection orders (ERPOs)—also known as red flag laws or gun violence restraining orders—are court-ordered restrictions on an individual's access to firearms based on evidence provided by law enforcement, family, or household members that the individual presents a risk for future harm.
If a judge finds that the person presents an imminent danger to self or others, the judge can issue an order requiring the person to surrender any firearms to law enforcement officials for a certain period of time. The orders prohibit people subject to them from buying, selling, or possessing firearms during that time.
The period of time an ERPO lasts depends on state law and the kind of order a court issues. Emergency ex parte orders generally last no more than a few weeks. A court can issue an emergency order without the gun owner being present at the hearing. A long-term ERPO, on the other hand, can last for up to a year. The gun owner is given an opportunity to appear in court before a judge issues this kind of order.
What do supporters say in defense of ERPOs?
Supporters say ERPOs strike a balance between individual rights and public safety. Supporters of ERPOs believe the orders can be used as a tool to prevent violence, save lives, and reduce suicide attempts. Supporters say ERPOs do not violate due process or Second Amendment rights because individuals can contest the claims against them in court.
Some supporters see ERPOs as a flexible and targeted alternative to broad gun control policies, like laws banning specific types of firearms and ammunition, while others say the orders complement other types of firearm restrictions.
Supporters say ERPOs allow those closest to the danger—like family members or law enforcement—to address specific cases.
What do opponents say in opposition to ERPOs?
Opponents of ERPO laws say they deprive individuals of due process under the law and violate Second Amendment rights. Because ERPOs are based on the risk of future harm, opponents contend such policies deprive people of their firearms based on speculation—effectively punishing people before they’ve committed a crime. Opponents also claim ERPOs could be abused for political or personal reasons. Additionally, opponents argue that existing laws, such as restraining orders and civil commitment laws, already provide a way to respond to situations that ERPOs are meant to address.
Opponents also say that ERPOs do not provide mechanisms to deal with underlying causes of danger or threat. Unless an individual’s mental health conditions have been addressed, opponents say they will likely remain a danger after the ERPO has expired.
How many states have ERPO laws?
Connecticut passed the first ERPO law in the country in 1999. Indiana lawmakers enacted an ERPO law in 2005, followed by California in 2014. Washington and Oregon enacted ERPO laws in 2016 and 2017, respectively. Interest in ERPO laws expanded following the 2018 Parkland school shooting in Parkland, Florida, with the number of states with such laws increasing from five to 13 during that year. Six more states adopted ERPOs between 2019 and 2020, bringing the total to 19.
In some states, lawmakers have passed laws or introduced legislation banning the use or enforcement of ERPOs.
Public-sector unions
What are public-sector unions?
Unions are organized groups of workers who join together to bargain with their employers over compensation, benefits, working conditions, hours, and other terms of employment. Public-sector unions are labor organizations made up of government employees.
Public-sector unions include employees working in federal, state, and local government. Government occupations with high levels of unionization include police officers, firefighters, teachers, custodians, and administrators.
Some of the country’s largest public-sector unions are the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME), the National Education Association (NEA), and the American Federation of Government Employees (AFGE).
How do public-sector unions work?
Public-sector unions negotiate collective bargaining agreements with government employers on behalf of employees. Generally, the members of an employee union pay dues to that union. These dues support the union's activities, which can include collective bargaining and contract administration, and can also support political activities, such as lobbying.
What is the history of public-sector unions in the United States?
The first trade union in the United States formed on May 1, 1794, when the Federal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers—shoemakers, in other words—in Philadelphia organized to demand better wages. Public-sector employees did not gain the legal right to collectively bargain until the 1960s.
In 1962, President John F. Kennedy (D) issued Executive Order 10988, which established the right of federal employees to form or join unions and engage in collective bargaining. Wisconsin was the first state to give state employees the ability to collectively bargain through a series of laws enacted in 1959 and 1962.
Public-sector union membership climbed rapidly throughout the 1960s as more states changed their labor laws to allow public employee collective bargaining. In 1960, 10.8% of public-sector employees were part of a union. In 2022, that percentage was 33%. In contrast to public-sector union membership, the percentage of unionized workers in the private sector has fallen since the 1950s, when around 35% of employees were part of a union. In 2022, 6% of private-sector employees were part of a union.
What court cases have shaped public-sector union policy in the United States?
Courts have played an important role in the development of state and federal public-sector union policies. In 1977, for example, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Abood v. Detroit Board of Education that employees cannot be required to give financial support to a union's political activities. However, the court found that it was not a violation of employees' rights under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution to require them to pay fees to support union activities from which they benefit, such as collective bargaining.
In 2018, the U.S. Supreme Court overturned Abood in Janus v. AFSCME.
How did the U.S. Supreme Court rule in Janus v. AFSCME and how did that decision affect public-sector union policy?
On June 27, 2018, the U.S. Supreme Court issued its ruling in Janus v. American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees, a case about labor union agency fees—fees unions charge non-union workers to cover the costs of collective bargaining. The court ruled public sector unions cannot require non-member employees to pay agency fees covering the costs of non-political union activities.
In support of agency fees, unions argued that objecting employees still benefited from the union's bargaining and administrative activities and that it was not unconstitutional for employees to be required to pay for those benefits. Non-union member employees who objected to agency fees argued that paying agency fees violates their First Amendment rights to the same extent as paying fees to support a union's expressly political activities.
Justice Samuel Alito authored the opinion for the court majority, joined by Chief Justice John Roberts and Justices Anthony Kennedy, Clarence Thomas, and Neil Gorsuch. Alito wrote that the agency fee "arrangement violates the free speech rights of nonmembers by compelling them to subsidize private speech on matters of substantial public concern." Alito also concluded that public sector employees must affirmatively consent to paying any type of union fee, rather than being required to affirmatively opt out in order to avoid paying.
Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Stephen Breyer, Sonia Sotomayor, and Elena Kagan dissented. Justice Kagan wrote, “There is no sugarcoating today’s opinion. The majority overthrows a decision entrenched in this Nation’s law—and in its economic life—for over 40 years. As a result, it prevents the American people, acting through their state and local officials, from making important choices about workplace governance. And it does so by weaponizing the First Amendment, in a way that unleashes judges, now and in the future, to intervene in economic and regulatory policy.”
How have states approached collective bargaining laws?
Public-sector collective bargaining laws differ across the country. In the five years following Janus, state lawmakers introduced more than 900 bills related to public-sector unions and enacted more than 100 of those bills. Some states have passed laws prohibiting public-sector collective bargaining altogether, while others have permitted voluntary unions. In some cases, public employers have a duty to bargain with unions. States have also taken different approaches on striking, where union employees collectively agree not to work in exchange for concessions. Some states permit unionized employees to strike, while others prohibit the practice altogether.
What has litigation around public-sector unions looked like since the Janus ruling?
Since 2019, the most common federal lawsuits related to public-sector unions have asked the following questions:
- Whether public-sector unions can be held liable for refunding agency fees paid before Janus
- Whether public-sector unions may continue to collect union dues from an employee who leaves the union if there is a pre-existing agreement that membership or dues authorization may only be revoked during a certain window
- Whether exclusive bargaining representation laws violate non-union members’ First Amendment rights
- Whether mandatory bar association dues should be reconsidered in light of Janus
In what ways do conservatives and liberals typically differ on public-sector unions?
Liberals and conservatives have typically taken different stances on public-sector unions. Democrats tend to support public-sector collective bargaining and oppose the Janus ruling and state laws that allow employees to opt out of union membership. Republicans, on the other hand, tend to oppose public-sector collective bargaining and support Janus and state laws that allow employees to decide whether or not to join a union.
Liberals have argued that public-sector unions help ensure public employees receive fair compensation and working conditions. Liberals have also argued that, in helping to raise wages for occupations like teachers and police officers, public-sector unions help strengthen the middle class. Liberals have also argued that public-sector unions advance democratic values by putting limits on government power and providing a space for public employees to make collective decisions.
- The 2020 Democratic Party platform states: “The right of workers to come together and form a union is under attack. We must unrig the rules that block workers from having the union they want and update our labor laws to make it more possible. We must change labor law so that it is easier for unions and employers to enter into multi-employer agreements establishing minimum workplace standards related to wages, benefits, and working conditions.”
Conservatives have argued that public-sector union activity tends to come at the expense of taxpayers, who foot the bill for higher public employee wages and benefits. Additionally, conservatives have said there is a conflict of interest when elected officials, who represent taxpayers, receive campaign contributions from public-sector unions. Conservatives have also argued that because many government services—like law enforcement—are effectively monopolies, striking public employees hold undue power over the public.
- The 2016 Republican platform states: “We intend to encourage those trends by bring- ing labor law into the 21st century. It should en- courage cooperation between management and workers, not conflict. All workers, including union members, must be free to accept raises and re- wards without veto power from union officials. All unionized workers should be able to find out what is going on in their union trust funds and in their executive compensation. We support the right of states to enact Right-to-Work laws and call for a national law to protect the economic liberty of the modern workforce.”
What have presidential candidates in recent cycles said about public-sector union policies?
In 2020, Joe Biden’s (D) presidential campaign website said, “As president, Biden will establish a federal right to union organizing and collective bargaining for all public sector employees, and make it easier for those employees who serve our communities to both join a union and bargain."
In 2018, then-President Donald Trump (R) responded in the following way to the U.S. Supreme Court’s ruling in Janus: “Supreme Court rules in favor of non-union workers who are now, as an example, able to support a candidate of his or her choice without having those who control the Union deciding for them."
U.S. healthcare system
- See also: Healthcare Policy
What is healthcare policy?
Healthcare policy involves creating and implementing laws, rules, and regulations for managing the nation's healthcare system. The healthcare system encompasses multiple sectors, including medical and therapeutic services, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment, insurance, and health information management.
How is healthcare provided in the United States?
The U.S. healthcare system is classified as a mixed system in which public and private organizations provide health insurance and healthcare services. As of 2022, around 92% of U.S. residents had health insurance, whether public or private.
The majority of U.S. residents—65.5%—were on private insurance plans. Of those, around 54.5% of insured individuals received insurance through their employer. Individuals on an employer-sponsored insurance plan typically share premium costs with their employer. About 10% of U.S. residents purchased their insurance through exchanges. The exchanges, which can be facilitated by either the federal or state governments, allow individuals to shop for private insurance.
The two major public programs are Medicaid, for low-income people and individuals with disabilities, and Medicare, for people 65 or older or younger people with certain disabilities or kidney disease. In 2022, Medicaid covered 18.8% of all individuals with health insurance, while Medicare covered 18.7%. Other public health insurance programs include TRICARE, which covers active duty and retired military members and their families, and VA (Veterans Administration) healthcare, which combined insure about 3.5% of Americans with insurance.
Some low-income seniors and people with disabilities are enrolled in both Medicare and Medicaid.
As of 2022, 8% of people in the U.S. were uninsured during at least some point in the year.
What are the major government programs related to healthcare?
Beginning in the mid-20th century, the federal government took an increasing role in regulating the healthcare industry. During that time, the National Institutes of Health and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Department of Health and Human Services were established. On July 30, 1965, President Lyndon Johnson (D) signed into law two amendments to the Social Security Act, creating Medicare and Medicaid.
Medicare:
- Medicare is a federal program that provides health insurance for people 65 or older, as well as certain younger people with disabilities and people with permanent kidney failure requiring dialysis or a transplant, sometimes called end-stage renal disease. The program consists of four parts (Parts A through D), covering everything from hospitalization, doctor visits and special services, medical devices, and prescription drugs. The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS), a division of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, administers the program.
Medicaid:
- Medicaid is a federal program, funded jointly with all 50 states, that provides medical insurance to groups of low-income people and individuals with disabilities. The federal government matches a percentage of state funding. The CMS administers Medicaid, monitors state programs, and establishes broad requirements for service delivery, quality, funding, and eligibility standards. Medicaid does not provide healthcare directly. Instead, it pays hospitals, physicians, nursing homes, health plans, and other healthcare providers for covered services that they deliver to eligible patients. States maintain some discretion over determining eligibility and benefits for the program. Eligibility for each state's Medicaid program is subject to minimum federal standards, both in the population groups states must cover and the maximum amount of income enrollees can make. States may set the income levels higher if they choose but they cannot set them lower.
- The 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, also known as Obamacare, initially required states to expand eligibility for Medicaid. However, in 2012, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius that the federal government could not withhold Medicaid funds from states that refused to expand program eligibility. Since that ruling, most states have expanded Medicaid, sometimes through the ballot measure process.
Obamacare:
- President Barack Obama (D) signed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (generally referred to as Obamacare or ACA) into law on March 23, 2010. The law required most individuals to obtain health insurance, and mandated that medium-sized and large businesses provide insurance to their employees.
- The ACA established a number of mechanisms for increasing the number of people enrolled in health insurance plans, including tax credits and cost-sharing subsidies for individuals to purchase insurance on state-run insurance marketplaces (also called exchanges). Additionally, the law prohibits insurers from denying coverage to individuals with pre-existing conditions, requires them to offer a standard set of benefits, and limits how much premiums can vary.
How do progressives typically approach healthcare policy in the United States?
Progressives typically support policies that expand the government’s role in providing or regulating health insurance and healthcare services, arguing the market will not ensure that everyone, especially people experiencing poverty, have access to quality healthcare. Progressives tend to support government policies that provide coverage to all Americans, regardless of ability to pay, but differ on how to achieve that goal. Some progressives support policies that would make the U.S. healthcare system more like a single-payer system, in which a government program (like Medicaid, for example) guarantees benefits to all Americans and eliminates out-of-pocket costs and premiums. Others support maintaining the current mixture of public and private insurance and healthcare services while, at the same time, expanding government options for uninsured or underinsured individuals and increasing subsidies to reduce premiums.
- The 2020 Democratic Party platform states: “We are going to at last build the health care system the American people have always deserved: one that finally provides universal health care coverage; reduces prescription drug prices, premiums, and out-of-pocket costs; reins in overall health care expenses; and tackles the deep-seated inequities in our health care system. We will build a health care system that is driven by the needs of patients and the people who care for them, instead of the profit motives of corporations. We will tackle entrenched racial disparities in health care, reduce prescription drug prices by standing up to big pharmaceutical companies, and make it easier to access mental health and substance use disorder treatment and long-term services and supports in metropolitan and rural areas alike.”
How do conservatives typically approach healthcare policy in the United States?
Conservatives typically support policies that allow or encourage the market to provide health insurance and healthcare services, arguing that competition between private insurers, businesses, and providers will lead to lower prices, better quality, and more insurance enrollment.
- Conservatives tend to oppose government involvement in healthcare. Governments, conservatives say, are less sensitive to consumer demands than private businesses, and lack the information and incentives to provide quality healthcare at a reasonable price. Conservatives have generally opposed Obamacare while supporting programs that provide healthcare coverage to seniors and people experiencing poverty.
- The 2016 Republican Party platform states: “We must recover the traditional patient-physician relationship based on mutual trust, informed consent, and confidentiality. To simplify the system for both patients and providers, we will reduce mandates and enable insurers and providers of care to increase healthcare options and contain costs. Our goal is to ensure that all Americans have improved access to affordable, high-quality healthcare, including those struggling with mental illness. We will return to the states their historic role of regulating local insurance markets, limit federal requirements on both private insurance and Medicaid, and call on state officials to reconsider the costly medical mandates, imposed under their own laws, that price millions of low-income families out of the insurance market. To guarantee first-rate care for the needy, we propose to block grant Medicaid and other payments and to assist all patients, including those with pre-existing conditions, to obtain coverage in a robust consumer market.”
In 2020, the Republican National Committee said it would keep the 2016 platform through 2024.
Immigration and border security
- See also: Immigration in the United States
What is immigration policy?
Immigration policy determines who may enter the country as a temporary worker, student, refugee, or permanent resident and who may become a new citizen of the United States. Immigration affects a variety of public policy areas, including national security, criminal justice, budgets, education, and healthcare. The federal government is responsible for setting and enforcing most immigration policy. States have a largely supportive role, enacting policies that may, for example, determine which public services immigrants can access, establish employee screening requirements, or guide the interaction between related state agencies and their federal counterparts.
In 2022, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated the total foreign born or immigrant population, including those both authorized and unauthorized to be in the country, was about 50 million. That was around 15% of the total population, estimated at 333,287,557 people at the time.
How does the U.S. immigration system work?
The U.S. Constitution grants Congress the authority to pass laws regulating who can and cannot enter the country. The president, through executive branch agencies, enforces those laws. The 1952 Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) is the primary law governing the U.S. immigration system. Congress has amended the Act several times since 1952.
The U.S. immigration system distinguishes between two broad categories of foreign nationals wishing to enter the U.S.—those seeking to stay on a temporary basis and those seeking to stay on a permanent basis.
Permanent residents
Foreign nationals seeking to stay in the U.S. for an indefinite period apply for a permanent resident card, informally known as a green card. Those granted a green card are allowed to stay in the country unless convicted of certain crimes, and are generally permitted to apply for citizenship after five years (or three years if married to a U.S. citizen). The government typically grants legal, permanent residency in case of family relation or domestic employment. A family member or business must sponsor a foreign national wishing to enter the country as a permanent resident. As of 2023, the INA limits the number of foreign nationals the U.S. admits on a permanent basis to 675,000:
The U.S. allocates 480,000 green cards to the relatives of U.S. citizens. However, there is no cap on the number of immediate relatives—such as spouses, minor children, and parents—admitted to the U.S, meaning the number of relatives brought into the country often exceeds 480,000. The U.S. allocates 140,000 green cards to immigrants entering the country for employment-related reasons. The U.S. also allocates 55,000 green cards through the diversity lottery. Those cards go to individuals from countries that have sent fewer than 50,000 immigrants to the U.S. in the last five years.
Refugees and asylum seekers make up another category of foreign nationals seeking to enter the country. Refugees and asylees are those who demonstrate they have been or could be persecuted on the basis of religion, race, national origin, or political beliefs. The INA does not cap the overall number of refugees and asylum seekers admitted to the U.S. Each year, the president and Congress jointly determine that figure.
Temporary immigration
The U.S. admits foreign nationals on a temporary basis for a variety of reasons, including tourism, education, and employment. There are more than 20 different categories of temporary immigration.
Individuals entering or residing in the country without legal permission A separate category of foreign nationals are those who live in the country but do not fall into any of the categories above. They are also known as undocumented immigrants or illegal immigrants. Those residing in the country without legal permission either illegally crossed a border without proper documentation or overstayed a visa. Immigrants residing in the country without legal permission have occupied a central place in political debates over immigration policy.
What federal agencies enforce U.S. immigration policies?
Enforcement of federal immigration law primarily comprises two separate processes: removals (or deportations) and returns. Removal is the legal process of moving someone who has broken federal immigration law out of the country, typically based on an order of removal from a federal immigration judge.
The return process, on the other hand, does not involve legal proceedings and simply involves stopping someone at or near the border who is attempting to enter the United States without legal permission.
Responsibility for enforcing federal immigration laws is primarily divided between four agencies:
- The U.S. Department of Homeland Security
- The U.S. Department of State
- The U.S. Department of Justice
- The U.S. Department of Labor
- Two divisions within the U.S. Department of Homeland Security are primarily responsible for enforcing immigration laws. U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) was established to disrupt transnational criminal organizations that exploit U.S. borders and enforce customs and immigration laws to prevent terrorism. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) administers the legal immigration process.
What role do the states play in shaping U.S. immigration policies?
Although the federal government primarily sets U.S. immigration policy, states enact supplementary policies, such as determining which public services immigrants can access, establishing employee screening requirements, and guiding the interaction between related state agencies and their federal counterparts. In some states, individuals residing in the country without legal permission can apply for drivers licenses and attend state universities. In other states, lawmakers have passed laws requiring state agencies and municipalities to comply with federal immigration policies.
The ballot measure process is one way citizens have weighed in on state immigration debates. Measures touching on immigration-related topics like the use of foreign language instruction in public schools, employment, birthright citizenship and law enforcement have appeared on statewide ballots since at least 1896.
Local governments also play a role in the U.S. immigration system. For example, some cities have passed laws allowing noncitizens to vote in some or all elections. Click here to see arguments about such policies.
In what ways do Republicans and Democrats typically differ on immigration policy?
Democrats tend to emphasize finding ways to provide citizenship to individuals who’ve resided in the country without legal permission for a significant period of time and admitting a greater number of refugees. Democratic immigration policies have focused on granting citizenship to immigrants brought into the country as children, creating new pathways for foreign nationals and refugees to enter the country legally, and addressing political and economic instability in South and Central America to reduce the root causes of immigration.
- The 2020 Democratic Party platform states: “A 21st century immigration system that honors our values is an essential prerequisite not just to recovering from the worst economic crisis since the Great Depression, but to strengthening our democracy and guaranteeing America’s long-term economic competitiveness. That’s why Democrats believe in improving and increasing opportunities for legal, permanent immigration. Our family, humanitarian, and diversity pathways have contributed immeasurably to the vibrancy and productivity of American society and should continue to be the centerpiece of our immigration system. We also support awarding visas for permanent, employment-based immigration in a way that is responsive to labor market needs. We want to attract and keep talent in this country, which is why Democrats will end the Trump Administration’s freeze on green cards for new immigrants and instead pursue a meaningful reform agenda.”
Republicans tend to emphasize border security and removing immigrants who aren’t authorized to be in the country. They also argue that not properly securing the border increases crime and the proliferation of drugs. Republican immigration policies have centered on building a wall along the Mexican-United States border, penalizing sanctuary cities that won’t enforce federal immigration laws, and funding border patrol agencies.
- The 2016 Republican Party platform states: “America’s immigration policy must serve the national interests of the United States, and the interests of American workers must be protected over the claims of foreign nationals seeking the same jobs. With all our fellow citizens, we have watched, in anger and disgust, the mocking of our immigration laws by a president who made himself superior to the will of the nation. We stand with the victims of his policies, especially the families of murdered innocents. Illegal immigration endangers everyone, exploits the American taxpayers, and insults all who aspire to enter America legally. We oppose any form of amnesty for those who, by breaking the law, have disadvantaged those who have obeyed it.”
In 2020, the Republican National Committee said it would keep the 2016 platform through 2024.
U.S. tax system
- See also: State Tax Policy
What are the main sources of federal revenue?
The U.S. federal government relies on a variety of taxes to raise revenue for the nation’s spending priorities, including national defense and border protection, the federal workforce, Social Security and Medicare, and more.
Governments also use tax credits and deductions to incentivize certain behaviors. Tax credits allow individuals to reduce their tax payment or increase their tax refund (in some cases, even if the individual does not owe taxes). An example is the Child Tax Credit (CTC). In 2023, eligible parents could reduce their taxes by as much as $2,000 per child. Deductions, on the other hand, allow individuals to subtract a certain amount from their taxable income, lowering their tax payment. An example is the State and Local Tax (SALT) deduction, which allows eligible individuals to deduct certain taxes paid to state and local governments from their federal taxes.
The U.S. Department of the Treasury is the executive branch agency responsible for collecting revenue, borrowing funds, and disbursing payments. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS), a bureau within the Treasury Department, administers the U.S. tax code, including enforcement of the laws.
As of 2024, the three kinds of taxes that raise the most revenue for the federal government are the individual income tax, payroll tax, and corporate income tax:
- Individual income tax
- The U.S. federal government levies the individual income tax on an individual’s income. The U.S. uses a marginal tax rate system, under which different tax rates apply to different income brackets. The system is also progressive, meaning that, in general, the tax rate goes up as income increases.
- Personal income taxes have been the largest source of revenue for the federal government since the 1940s. In Fiscal Year 2022, for example, $2.6 trillion of the $4.9 trillion the federal government raised in tax revenue came from personal income taxes.
- As of 2024, 43 states also levy an income tax. State income tax rates vary by state.
- Payroll tax
- The federal government assesses payroll taxes on workers’ wages or salaries, and the revenue funds social insurance programs like Social Security, Medicare, and unemployment insurance. Both employers and employees contribute to payroll taxes. In Fiscal Year 2022, payroll taxes made up about 33% of all federal tax revenue.
- Corporate income tax
- The federal government levies the corporate income tax on a corporation’s profits.
- The corporate income tax is the third-largest source of revenue for the federal government. In Fiscal Year 2022, the corporate income tax raised approximately 8% of all federal tax revenue.
- Other taxes
- Other sources of federal revenue include excise and estate and inheritance taxes, as well as capital gains taxes. Excise taxes, also known as selective sales or differential commodity taxes, are levied on the sales of specific goods or services. Examples of excise taxes are those on items such as fuel, alcohol, and tobacco.
- Estate and inheritance taxes are levied on the property of deceased individuals. Generally, an estate tax is applied to the value of a decedent's property and is paid from the estate before distribution to any heirs. Conversely, an inheritance tax is paid by the heir or heirs of a decedent's assets.
- A capital gains tax is a tax levied on the profit gleaned from the sale of a capital asset. Capital assets include corporate stocks, businesses, land parcels, homes, personal items and other such assets. When someone sells a capital asset, the difference between the asset's basis, or original cost, and its selling price is the capital gain (if a profit is made) or capital loss. At the federal level, short-term gains (i.e., gains on assets held for one year or less) are taxed at a higher rate than long-term gains (i.e., gains on assets held for more than one year).
What are the main sources of state and local taxes?
Like the federal government, each state uses taxation to raise revenue for its spending priorities. As with many other areas of law, tax systems vary by state. According to City University of New York Professor Marilyn Rubin and Georgia State University Professor Katherine Willoughby in their book Sustaining the States, state governments “(1) develop and execute their budgets without review and modification by the federal government, (2) determine their own revenue structures, and (3) borrow and manage debt. The U.S. system stands in contrast with nearly all other top-down nation-states in which the established central government constitutionally or legislatively assigns expenditure responsibilities and revenue raising to subnational units of government.”
Tax systems vary considerably across the 50 states. In most states, the three biggest sources of revenue are the personal income tax, sales taxes, and excise—or selective—taxes. However, as of 2024, 43 states levied a personal income tax, and 45 states collected a statewide sales tax. New Hampshire relies more on the corporate income tax than any other state, while Vermont relies more on property taxes than other states.
The tax rate also varies between states. For example, in 2022, the top marginal income tax rate in California was 13.3%. In Oklahoma, it was 4.75%.
There’s even more variety among the more than 90,000 local governments in the U.S. According to the Tax Foundation, in 2020, property taxes made up 72.2% of all local government tax revenue. Other important sources of local government tax revenue include consumption taxes, income taxes, and business license taxes, license fees, and other taxes.
In addition to tax revenue, local governments rely on transfers from state governments for close to a third of their total revenue.
What is the history of the U.S. tax system?
The federal government relied on tariffs—taxes applied to goods imported from abroad—as its largest source of revenue between 1789, when the Constitution was ratified, and the early 1860s. According to W. Elliot Brownlee’s Federal Taxation in America: A Short History, “The tax regime that followed the creation of the new constitutional order was based on customs duties; it lasted until the Civil War, making it the longest in American history.”
In 1861, during the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Revenue Act of 1861, establishing the country’s first income tax. Congress repealed that tax in 1872.
In 1913, 36 states (out of 48 at the time) ratified the 16th Amendment. The amendment states: “The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.” Although the federal government collected only a small amount in revenue from the income tax at the start, the amount gradually increased in the proceeding years.
Since 1913, Congress has continually adjusted income tax rates and brackets. In 1913, the top rate was 7% on incomes above $500,000. However, from the 1950s through the 1970s, the top rate never fell below 70%.
In what ways do Republicans and Democrats typically differ on tax policy?
Tax policy is a perennial subject of debate among elected officials in Congress, state legislatures, and elsewhere. Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, the Republican and Democratic Parties have held different stances on tax policy. Those stances are, in part, a consequence of how each Party views the role of government in society.
Democrats have tended to support a more progressive tax code, with wealthier families and larger corporations paying more in taxes, to address income inequality and fund social programs.
The 2020 Democratic Party platform states: “Democrats will reform the tax code to be more progressive and equitable, and reduce barriers for working families to benefit from targeted tax breaks, including the Earned Income Tax Credit and the Child Tax Credit. Our program of reform will provide immediate, marked relief for working families, including more generous, refundable tax credits to benefit low- and middle-income families, and easier and more equitable access to tax provisions that help working families build wealth, including by equalizing tax benefits for retirement contributions and providing more accessible tax breaks for homeownership.”
Republicans have generally supported policies that lower taxes, allowing individuals to keep more of their money, and boost economic growth.
The 2016 Republican Party platform states: “Republicans consider the establishment of a pro-growth tax code a moral imperative. More than any other public policy, the way government raises revenue — how much, at what rates, under what circumstances, from whom, and for whom — has the greatest impact on our economy’s performance. It powerfully influences the level of economic growth and job creation, which translates into the level of opportunity for those who would otherwise be left behind. Getting our tax system right will be the most important factor in driving the entire economy back to prosperity.”
Voting in your state
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See also
Footnotes
