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Executive Order: Keeping Men Out of Women’s Sports (Donald Trump, 2025)
Donald Trump's executive orders (second term) |
Restoring the United States Department of War • Modifying the Scope of Reciprocal Tariffs and Establishing Procedures for Implementing Trade and Security Agreements • Strengthening Efforts to Protect U.S. Nationals From Wrongful Detention Abroad |
First day • First 100 days • Revokes previous order • The administrative state • Education • Energy and the environment • Foreign policy • Health • Immigration • Policing and criminal justice • Technology • Trade and tariffs |
Donald Trump's Cabinet • Confirmation process for Cabinet nominees • Confirmation votes by senator • Key legislation • Ambassadors • Special envoys • Multistate lawsuits |
Executive Order: Keeping Men Out of Women’s Sports is an executive order that President Donald Trump (R) issued on February 5, 2025, during his second term in office.[1]
Executive orders are directives the president writes to officials within the executive branch requiring them to take or stop some action related to policy or management. They are numbered, published in the Federal Register, cite the authority by which the president is making the order, and the Office of Management and Budget issues budgetary impact analyses for each order.[2][3] Click here to read more about executive orders issued during Trump's second term.
Text of the order
The section below displays the text of the order. Click here to view the order as published on the White House website.
“ |
By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and the laws of the United States of America, and to protect opportunities for women and girls to compete in safe and fair sports, it is hereby ordered: Section 1. Policy and Purpose. In recent years, many educational institutions and athletic associations have allowed men to compete in women’s sports. This is demeaning, unfair, and dangerous to women and girls, and denies women and girls the equal opportunity to participate and excel in competitive sports. Moreover, under Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972 (Title IX), educational institutions receiving Federal funds cannot deny women an equal opportunity to participate in sports. As some Federal courts have recognized, “ignoring fundamental biological truths between the two sexes deprives women and girls of meaningful access to educational facilities.” Tennessee v. Cardona, 24-cv-00072 at 73 (E.D. Ky. 2024). See also Kansas v. U.S. Dept. of Education, 24-cv-04041 at 23 (D. Kan. 2024) (highlighting “Congress’ goals of protecting biological women in education”). Therefore, it is the policy of the United States to rescind all funds from educational programs that deprive women and girls of fair athletic opportunities, which results in the endangerment, humiliation, and silencing of women and girls and deprives them of privacy. It shall also be the policy of the United States to oppose male competitive participation in women’s sports more broadly, as a matter of safety, fairness, dignity, and truth. Sec. 2. Definitions. The definitions in Executive Order 14168 of January 20, 2025 (Defending Women from Gender Ideology Extremism and Restoring Biological Truth to the Federal Government), shall apply to this order. Sec.3. Preserving Women’s Sports in Education. (a) In furtherance of the purposes of Title IX, the Secretary of Education shall promptly: (i) in coordination with the Attorney General, continue to comply with the vacatur of the rule entitled “Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Sex in Education Programs or Activities Receiving Federal Financial Assistance” of April 29, 2024, 89 FR 33474, see Tennessee v. Cardona, 24-cv-00072 at 13-15 (E.D. Ky. 2025), and take other appropriate action to ensure this regulation does not have effect; (ii) take all appropriate action to affirmatively protect all-female athletic opportunities and all-female locker rooms and thereby provide the equal opportunity guaranteed by Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, including enforcement actions described in subsection (iii); to bring regulations and policy guidance into line with the Congress’ existing demand for “equal athletic opportunity for members of both sexes” by clearly specifying and clarifying that women’s sports are reserved for women; and the resolution of pending litigation consistent with this policy; and (iii) prioritize Title IX enforcement actions against educational institutions (including athletic associations composed of or governed by such institutions) that deny female students an equal opportunity to participate in sports and athletic events by requiring them, in the women’s category, to compete with or against or to appear unclothed before males. (b) All executive departments and agencies (agencies) shall review grants to educational programs and, where appropriate, rescind funding to programs that fail to comply with the policy established in this order. (c) The Department of Justice shall provide all necessary resources, in accordance with law, to relevant agencies to ensure expeditious enforcement of the policy established in this order. Sec. 4. Preserving Fairness and Safety in Women’s Sports. Many sport-specific governing bodies have no official position or requirements regarding trans-identifying athletes. Others allow men to compete in women’s categories if these men reduce the testosterone in their bodies below certain levels or provide documentation of “sincerely held” gender identity. These policies are unfair to female athletes and do not protect female safety. To address these concerns, it is hereby ordered: (a) The Assistant to the President for Domestic Policy shall, within 60 days of the date of this order: (i) convene representatives of major athletic organizations and governing bodies, and female athletes harmed by such policies, to promote policies that are fair and safe, in the best interests of female athletes, and consistent with the requirements of Title IX, as applicable; and (ii) convene State Attorneys General to identify best practices in defining and enforcing equal opportunities for women to participate in sports and educate them about stories of women and girls who have been harmed by male participation in women’s sports. (b) The Secretary of State, including through the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs’ Sports Diplomacy Division and the Representative of the United States of America to the United Nations, shall: (i) rescind support for and participation in people-to-people sports exchanges or other sports programs within which the relevant female sports category is based on identity and not sex; and (ii) promote, including at the United Nations, international rules and norms governing sports competition to protect a sex-based female sports category, and, at the discretion of the Secretary of State, convene international athletic organizations and governing bodies, and female athletes harmed by policies that allow male participation in women’s sports, to promote sporting policies that are fair, safe, and in furtherance of the best interests of female athletes. (c) The Secretary of State and the Secretary of Homeland Security shall review and adjust, as needed, policies permitting admission to the United States of males seeking to participate in women’s sports, and shall issue guidance with an objective of preventing such entry to the extent permitted by law, including pursuant to section 212(a)(6)(C)(i) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (8 U.S.C. 1182(a)(6)(C)(i)). (d) The Secretary of State shall use all appropriate and available measures to see that the International Olympic Committee amends the standards governing Olympic sporting events to promote fairness, safety, and the best interests of female athletes by ensuring that eligibility for participation in women’s sporting events is determined according to sex and not gender identity or testosterone reduction. Sec. 5. General Provisions. (a) Nothing in this order shall be construed to impair or otherwise affect: (i) the authority granted by law to an executive department or agency, or the head thereof; or (ii) the functions of the Director of the Office of Management and Budget relating to budgetary, administrative, or legislative proposals. (b) This order shall be implemented consistent with applicable law and subject to the availability of appropriations. (c) This order is not intended to, and does not, create any right or benefit, substantive or procedural, enforceable at law or in equity by any party against the United States, its departments, agencies, or entities, its officers, employees, or agents, or any other person. (d) If any provision of this order, or the application of any provision to any person or circumstance, is held to be invalid, the remainder of this order and the application of its provisions to any other persons or circumstances shall not be affected thereby. [1][4] |
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Executive orders in the second term of the Trump administration
September 2025
- Restoring the United States Department of War (September 5, 2025)
- Modifying the Scope of Reciprocal Tariffs and Establishing Procedures for Implementing Trade and Security Agreements (September 5, 2025)
- Strengthening Efforts to Protect U.S. Nationals From Wrongful Detention Abroad (September 5, 2025)
- Implementing the United States-Japan Agreement (September 4, 2025)
August 2025
- Further Exclusions From the Federal Labor-Management Relations Program (August 28, 2025)
- Making Federal Architecture Beautiful Again (August 28, 2025)
- Measures to End Cashless Bail and Enforce the Law in the District of Columbia (August 25, 2025)
- Prosecuting Burning of the American Flag (August 25, 2025)
- Additional Measures to Address the Crime Emergency in the District of Columbia (August 25, 2025)
- Taking Steps to End Cashless Bail to Protect Americans (August 25, 2025)
- Improving Our Nation Through Better Design (August 21, 2025)
- Revocation of Executive Order on Competition (August 13, 2025)
- Enabling Competition in the Commercial Space Industry (August 13, 2025)
- Ensuring American Pharmaceutical Supply Chain Resilience by Filling the Strategic Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients Reserve (August 13, 2025)
- Further Modifying Reciprocal Tariff Rates to Reflect Ongoing Discussions With the People's Republic of China (August 11, 2025)
- Declaring a Crime Emergency in the District of Columbia (August 11, 2025)
- Improving Oversight of Federal Grantmaking (August 7, 2025)
- Guaranteeing Banking for All Americans (August 7, 2025)
- Democratizing Access to Alternative Assets for 401(k) Investors (August 7, 2025)
- Addressing Threats to the United States by the Government of the Russian Federation (August 6, 2025)
- Establishing the White House Task Force on the 2028 Summer Olympics (August 5, 2025)
July 2025
- Amendment to Duties to Address the Flow of Illicit Drugs Across our Northern Border (July 31, 2025)
- President's Council on Sports, Fitness, and Nutrition, and the Reestablishment of the Presidential Fitness Test (July 31, 2025)
- Further Modifying the Reciprocal Tariff Rates (July 31, 2025)
- Addressing Threats to the United States by the Government of Brazil (July 30, 2025)
- Suspending Duty-Free De Minimis Treatment for All Countries (July 30, 2025)
- Ending Crime and Disorder on America's Streets (July 24, 2025)
- Saving College Sports (July 24, 2025)
- Preventing Woke AI in the Federal Government (July 23, 2025)
- Accelerating Federal Permitting of Data Center Infrastructure (July 23, 2025)
- Promoting the Export of the American AI Technology Stack (July 23, 2025)
- Creating Schedule G in the Excepted Service (July 17, 2025)
- Ending Market Distorting Subsidies for Unreliable, Foreing Controlled Energy Sources (July 7, 2025)
- Extending the Modification of the Reciprocal Tariff Rates (July 7, 2025)
- Establishing the President's Make America Beautiful Again Commission (July 3, 2025)
- Making America Beautiful Again by Improving Our National Parks (July 3, 2025)
June 2025
- Providing for the Revocation of Syria Sanctions (June 30, 2025)
- Further Extending the TikTok Enforcement Delay (June 19, 2025)
- Implementing the General Terms of the United States of America-United Kingdom Economic Prosperity Deal (June 16, 2025)
- Regarding the Proposed Acquisition of United States Steel Corporation by Nippon Steel Corporation (June 13, 2025)
- Empowering Commonsense Wildfire Prevention and Response (June 12, 2025)
- Leading the World in Supersonic Flight (June 6, 2025)
- Restoring American Airspace Sovereignty (June 6, 2025)
- Unleashing American Drone Dominance (June 6, 2025)
- Sustaining Select Efforts to Strengthen the Nation's Cybersecurity and Amending Executive Order 13694 and Executive Order 14144 (June 6, 2025)
May 2025
- Deploying Advanced Nuclear Reactor Technologies for National Security (May 23, 2025)
- Ordering the Reform of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (May 23, 2025)
- Reforming Nuclear Reactor Testing at the Department of Energy (May 23, 2025)
- Reinvigorating the Nuclear Industrial Base (May 23, 2025)
- Restoring Gold Standard Science (May 23, 2025)
- Modifying Reciprocal Tariff Rates to Reflect Discussions With the People's Republic of China (May 12, 2025)
- Delivering Most-Favored-Nation Prescription Drug Pricing to American Patients (May 12, 2025)
- Keeping Promises to Veterans and Establishing a National Center for Warrior Independence (May 9, 2025)
- Increasing Efficiency at the Office of the Federal Register (May 9, 2025)
- Fighting Overcriminalization in Federal Regulations (May 9, 2025)
- Improving the Safety and Security of Biological Research (May 5, 2025)
- Regulatory Relief to Promote Domestic Production of Critical Medicines (May 5, 2025)
- Establishment of the Religious Liberty Commission (May 1, 2025)
- Ending Taxpayer Subsidization of Biased Media (May 1, 2025)
April 2025
- Addressing Certain Tariffs on Imported Articles (April 29, 2025)
- Enforcing Commensense Rules of the Road for America's Truck Drivers (April 28, 2025)
- Protecting American Communities from Criminal Aliens (April 28, 2025)
- Strengthening and Unleashing America's Law Enforcement to Pursue Criminals and Protect Innocent Citizens (April 28, 2025)
- Strengthening Probationary Periods in the Federal Service (April 24, 2025)
- Unleashing America's Offshore Critical Minerals and Resources (April 24, 2025)
- Transparency Regarding Foreign Influence at American Universities (April 23, 2025)
- Reforming Accreditation to Strengthen Higher Education (April 23, 2025)
- White House Initiative to Promote Excellence and Innovation at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (April 23, 2025)
- Preparing Americans for High-Paying Skilled Trade Jobs of the Future (April 23, 2025)
- Reinstating Common Sense School Discipline Policies (April 23, 2025)
- Restoring Equality of Opportunity and Meritocracy (April 23, 2025)
- Advancing Artificial Intelligence Education for American Youth (April 23, 2025)
- Restoring American Seafood Competitiveness (April 17, 2025)
- Ensuring Commercial, Cost-Effective Solutions in Federal Contracts (April 16, 2025)
- Restoring Common Sense to Federal Procurement (April 15, 2025)
- Lowering Drug Prices by Once Again Putting Americans First (April 15, 2025)
- Ensuring National Security and Economic Resilience Through Section 232 Actions on Processed Critical Minerals and Derivative Products (April 15, 2025)
- Restoring Common Sense to Federal Office Space Management (April 15, 2025)
- Modifying Reciprocal Tariff Rates to Reflect Trading Partner Retaliation and Alignment (April 9, 2025)
- Addressing Risks From Susman Godfrey (April 9, 2025)
- Modernizing Defense Acquisitions and Spurring Innovation in the Defense Industrial Base (April 9, 2025)
- Restoring America's Maritime Dominance (April 9, 2025)
- Reducing Anti-Competitive Regulatory Barriers (April 9, 2025)
- Zero-Based Regulatory Budgeting To Unleash American Energy (April 9, 2025)
- Reforming Foreign Defense Sales To Improve Speed and Accountability (April 9, 2025)
- Maintaining Acceptable Water Pressure in Showerheads (April 9, 2025)
- Strengthening the Reliability and Security of the United States Electric Grid (April 8, 2025)
- Protecting American Energy From State Overreach (April 8, 2025)
- Reinvigorating America’s Beautiful Clean Coal Industry and Amending Executive Order 14241 (April 8, 2025)
- Amendment to Reciprocal Tariffs and Updated Duties As Applied to Low-Value Imports From the People's Republic of China (April 8, 2025)
- Extending the TikTok Enforcement Delay (April 4, 2025)
- Regulating Imports with a Reciprocal Tariff to Rectify Trade Practices that Contribute to Large and Persistent Annual United States Goods Trade Deficits (April 2, 2025)
- Further Amendment to Duties Addressing the Synthetic Opioid Supply Chain in the People’s Republic of China as Applied to Low-Value Imports (April 2, 2025)
March 2025
- Combating Unfair Practices in the Live Entertainment Market (March 31, 2025)
- Establishing the United States Investment Accelerator (March 31, 2025)
- Making the District of Columbia Safe and Beautiful (March 28, 2025)
- Restoring Truth and Sanity to American History (March 27, 2025)
- Exclusions From Federal Labor-Management Relations Programs (March 27, 2025)
- Addressing Risks From WilmerHale (March 27, 2025)
- Protecting America’s Bank Account Against Fraud, Waste, and Abuse (March 25, 2025)
- Modernizing Payments To and From America’s Bank Account (March 25, 2025)
- Preserving and Protecting the Integrity of American Elections (March 25, 2025)
- Addressing Risks from Jenner & Block (March 25, 2025)
- Imposing Tariffs on Countries Importing Venezuelan Oil (March 24, 2025)
- Addressing Remedial Action by Paul Weiss (March 21, 2025)
- Stopping Waste, Fraud, and Abuse by Eliminating Information Silos (March 20, 2025)
- Eliminating Waste and Saving Taxpayer Dollars by Consolidating Procurement (March 20, 2025)
- Immediate Measures to Increase American Mineral Production (March 20, 2025)
- Improving Education Outcomes by Empowering Parents, States, and Communities (March 20, 2025)
- Achieving Efficiency Through State and Local Preparedness (March 19, 2025)
- Additional Rescissions of Harmful Executive Orders and Actions (March 14, 2025)
- Addressing Risks From Paul Weiss (March 14, 2025)
- Continuing the Reduction of the Federal Bureaucracy (March 14, 2025)
- Establishing the White House Task Force on the FIFA World Cup 2026 (March 7, 2025)
- Restoring Public Service Loan Forgiveness (March 7, 2025)
- Amendment to Duties to Address the Flow of Illicit Drugs Across Our Northern Border (March 6, 2025)
- Addressing Risks from Perkins Coie LLP (March 6, 2025)
- Amendment to Duties to Address the Flow of Illicit Drugs Across Our Southern Border (March 6, 2025)
- Establishment of the Strategic Bitcoin Reserve And United States Digital Asset Stockpile (March 6, 2025)
- Honoring Jocelyn Nungaray (March 5, 2025)
- Further Amendment to Duties Addressing the Synthetic Opioid Supply Chain in the People's Republic of China (March 3, 2025)
- Amendment to Duties to Address the Situation at our Southern Border (March 2, 2025)
- Amendment to Duties to Address the Flow of Illicit Drugs across our Northern Border (March 2, 2025)
- Addressing The Threat To National Security from Imports of Timber, Lumber (March 1, 2025)
- Immediate Expansion of American Timber Production (March 1, 2025)
- Designating English as the Official Language of The United States (March 1, 2025)
February 2025
- Implementing the President's "Department of Government Efficiency" Cost Efficiency Initiative (February 26, 2025)
- Addressing the Threat to National Security From Imports of Copper (February 25, 2025)
- Making America Healthy Again by Empowering Patients with Clear, Accurate, and Actionable Healthcare Pricing Information (February 25, 2025)
- Commencing the Reduction of the Federal Bureaucracy (February 19, 2025)
- Ensuring Lawful Governance and Implementing the President's "Department of Government Efficiency" Deregulatory Initiative (February 19, 2025)
- Ending Taxpayer Subsidization of Open Borders (February 19, 2025)
- Ensuring Accountability for All Agencies (February 18, 2025)
- Expanding Access to In Vitro Fertilization (February 18, 2025)
- Keeping Education Accessible and Ending Covid-19 Vaccine Mandates in Schools (February 15, 2025)
- Establishing the National Energy Dominance Council (February 14, 2025)
- Establishing the President's Make America Healthy Again Commission (February 13, 2025)
- One Voice for America’s Foreign Relations (February 12, 2025)
- Implementing The President’s “Department of Government Efficiency” Workforce Optimization Initiative (February 11, 2025)
- Pausing Foreign Corrupt Practices Act Enforcement to Further American Economic and National Security (February 10, 2025)
- Eliminating the Federal Executive Institute (February 10, 2025)
- Ending Procurement and Forced Use of Paper Straws (February 10, 2025)
- Addressing Egregious Actions of The Republic of South Africa (February 7, 2025)
- Establishment of The White House Faith Office (February 7, 2025)
- Protecting Second Amendment Rights (February 7, 2025)
- Imposing Sanctions on the International Criminal Court (February 6, 2025)
- Eradicating Anti-Christian Bias (February 6, 2025)
- Amendment to Duties Addressing the Synthetic Opioid Supply Chain in the People's Republic of China (February 5, 2025)
- Keeping Men Out of Women’s Sports (February 5, 2025)
- Withdrawing the United States From and Ending Funding to Certain United Nations Organizations and Reviewing United States Support to All International Organizations (February 4, 2025)
- Progress on the Situation at Our Northern Border (February 3, 2025)
- A Plan For Establishing A United States Sovereign Wealth Fund (February 3, 2025)
- Progress on the Situation At Our Southern Border (February 3, 2025)
- Imposing Duties to Address the Flow of Illicit Drugs Across Our Northern Border (February 1, 2025)
- Imposing Duties to Address the Synthetic Opioid Supply Chain in the People’s Republic of China (February 1, 2025)
- Imposing Duties to Address the Situation at Our Southern Border (February 1, 2025)
January 2025
- Unleashing Prosperity Through Deregulation (January 31, 2025)
- Additional Measures to Combat Anti-Semitism (January 29, 2025)
- Celebrating America’s 250th Birthday (January 29, 2025)
- Ending Radical Indoctrination in K-12 Schooling (January 29, 2025)
- Expanding Educational Freedom and Opportunity for Families (January 29, 2025)
- Protecting Children From Chemical And Surgical Mutilation (January 29, 2025)
- Reinstating Service Members Discharged Under The Military's COVID-19 Vaccination Mandate (January 27, 2025)
- Restoring America's Fighting Force (January 27, 2025)
- Prioritizing Military Excellence And Readiness (January 27, 2025)
- The Iron Dome For America (January 27, 2025)
- Enforcing The Hyde Amendment (January 24, 2025)
- Emergency Measures To Provide Water Resources In California And Improve Disaster Response In Certain Areas (January 24, 2025)
- Council To Assess The Federal Emergency Management Agency (January 24, 2025)
- Removing Barriers to American Leadership in Artificial Intelligence (January 23, 2025)
- President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (January 23, 2025)
- Declassification of Records Concerning the Assassinations of President John F. Kennedy, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, and the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 23, 2025)
- Strengthening American Leadership In Digital Financial Technology (January 23, 2025)
- Designation of Ansar Allah As A Foreign Terrorist Organization (January 22, 2025)
- Ending Illegal Discrimination and Restoring Merit-Based Opportunity (January 21, 2025)
- Revocation of Certain Executive Orders (January 21, 2025)
- Restoring Names That Honor American Greatness (January 20, 2025)
- Designating Cartels And Other Organizations As Foreign Terrorist Organizations And Specially Designated Global Terrorists (January 20, 2025)
- Ending Radical And Wasteful Government DEI Programs And Preferencing (January 20, 2025)
- Reforming The Federal Hiring Process And Restoring Merit To Government Service (January 20, 2025)
- Defending Women From Gender Ideology Extremism And Restoring Biological Truth To The Federal Government (January 20, 2025)
- Establishing And Implementing The President’s “Department Of Government Efficiency” (January 20, 2025)
- America First Policy Directive To The Secretary Of State (January 20, 2025)
- Reevaluating And Realigning United States Foreign Aid (January 20, 2025)
- Protecting The United States From Foreign Terrorists And Other National Security And Public Safety Threats (January 20, 2025)
- Unleashing Alaska’s Extraordinary Resource Potential (January 20, 2025)
- Protecting The American People Against Invasion (January 20, 2025)
- Declaring a National Energy Emergency (January 20, 2025)
- Securing Our Borders (January 20, 2025)
- Restoring The Death Penalty And Protecting Public Safety (January 20, 2025)
- Protecting The Meaning And Value Of American Citizenship (January 20, 2025)
- Unleashing American Energy (January 20, 2025)
- Realigning the United States Refugee Admissions Program (January 20, 2025)
- Holding Former Government Officials Accountable For Election Interference And Improper Disclosure Of Sensitive Governmental Information (January 20, 2025)
- Clarifying The Military’s Role In Protecting The Territorial Integrity Of The United States (January 20, 2025)
- Restoring Accountability to Policy-Influencing Positions Within the Federal Workforce (January 20, 2025)
- Withdrawing the United States from the World Health Organization (January 20, 2025)
- Application of Protecting Americans from Foreign Adversary Controlled Applications Act to TikTok (January 20, 2025)
- Putting America First In International Environmental Agreements (January 20, 2025)
- Restoring Freedom of Speech and Ending Federal Censorship (January 20, 2025)
- Ending the Weaponization of the Federal Government (January 20, 2025)
- Initial Rescissions of Harmful Executive Orders and Actions (January 20, 2025)
Historical context
Overview, 1789-2025
The following chart shows the number of executive orders and average executive orders per year issued by each president of the United States from 1789 to 2025.
Average number of executive orders issued each year by president, 1921-2025
The following chart visualizes the average number of executive orders issued each year between 1921 and 2025, as noted in the table in the section above. The number of executive orders issued declined during this time period with Presidents Barack Obama (D) and George W. Bush issuing the fewest on average at 35 and 36 each year, respectively.
Executive orders issued over time, 2001-2025
The chart below displays the number of executive orders issued over time by Biden, Trump, Obama, and Bush.
See also
- Donald Trump presidential transition, 2024-2025
- Donald Trump's Cabinet, 2025
- Confirmation process for Donald Trump's Cabinet nominees, 2025
- Joe Biden's executive orders and actions
- Presidential election, 2024
Footnotes
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 White House, "Keeping Men Out of Women’s Sports," February 5, 2025
- ↑ Cooper, Phillip. (2014). By Order of the President: The Use and Abuse of Executive Direct Action. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. (pgs. 21-22)
- ↑ USA Today, "Presidential memoranda vs. executive orders. What's the difference?" January 24, 2017
- ↑ Note: This text is quoted verbatim from the original source. Any inconsistencies are attributable to the original source.