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Federalism by the numbers
| Federalism |
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| •Key terms • Court cases •Major arguments • State responses to federal mandates • Federalism by the numbers • Index of articles about federalism |
- See also: Unfunded mandates
This page provides an overview of data about federal government mandates, grant-in-aid programs, and information collection requests.
Federal mandates
The following data refers to federal mandates enacted between 2007 and 2019. Regulations or other requirements imposed by a higher level of government on a lower one, but without accompanying appropriations to cover the cost of compliance, are known as unfunded mandates. The actual costs of unfunded mandates are difficult if not impossible to discern with accuracy. The Congressional Budget Office enacts intergovernmental and private-sector mandates.
Total number of federal mandates enacted between 2007 and 2019
The following charts show the total number of federal mandates enacted between 2007 and 2019, including 420 intergovernmental mandates and 790 private-sector mandates.
Total number of intergovernmental mandates enacted between 2007 and 2019
The following charts show the number of intergovernmental mandates enacted each year between 2007 and 2019. There have been a total of 420 mandates enacted within 190 laws.
Total number of private-sector mandates enacted between 2007 and 2019
The following charts show the number of private-sector mandates enacted each year between 2007 and 2019. There have been a total of 790 mandates enacted within 294 laws.
Total number of intergovernmental mandates and private-sector mandates enacted between 2007 and 2019 that exceed the statutory threshold
The following charts show the number of intergovernmental and private-sector mandates enacted each year between 2007 and 2019 that exceed the statutory threshold. The statutory threshold for intergovernmental mandates is $50 million annually and the statutory threshold for private-sector mandates is $100 million annually. There have been a total of 15 intergovernmental mandates enacted that exceed $50 million annually and a total of 118 private-sector mandates enacted that exceed $100 million annually.
Total number of intergovernmental mandates enacted between 1996 and 2019 that exceed the statutory threshold
The following charts show the total number of intergovernmental mandates enacted between 1996 and 2019 that exceed the statutory threshold according to the topic of the mandate. The statutory threshold for intergovernmental mandates is $50 million annually. The table below also includes the corresponding statutes for each intergovernmental mandate.
Total number of private-sector mandates enacted between 1996 and 2019 that exceed the statutory threshold
The following charts show the total number of private-sector mandates enacted between 1996 and 2019 that exceed the statutory threshold according to the topic of the mandate. The statutory threshold for private-sector mandates is $100 million annually. The table below also includes the corresponding statutes for each private-sector mandate.
Total number of final regulations with federalism impacts enacted between 1996 and 2020
The following chart shows the total number of final regulations with federalism impacts enacted between 1996 and 2020. The Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs defines federalism implications as "actions 'that have substantial direct effects on the States, on the relationship between the national government and the States, or on the distribution of power and responsibilities among the various levels of government.'"[1]
Federal grants-in-aid
Federal grants-in-aid are funds the federal government provides to state and local governments, U.S. territories, and tribal governments to support public programs. Congress authorizes these grants through statutes that define their purpose and establish award procedures.[2] This page includes data on the number of federal grant-in-aid programs and dollar amounts awarded to state and local governments.
Grants-in-aid often include conditions or requirements that allow the federal government to shape state policies indirectly. For example, education and transportation grants may require states to meet federal standards as a condition of receiving funds. In this way, grants serve as a mechanism for federal influence over state and local policymaking.
Federal grants to state and local governments fund programs that directly benefit individuals, such as education, healthcare, housing, and public infrastructure. While these funds are not distributed directly to individuals, they support services and systems designed to meet community needs.
Highlights and key takeaways:
- Federal grants to state and local governments increased steadily for over 80 years, from $17.7 billion in 1940 to $891.4 billion in 2023 (using 2017 constant dollars). These grants peaked at $1.13 trillion in 2021.
- Federal grants first peaked from 2009 through 2011 following the Great Recession, largely due to the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (2009), the Affordable Care Act (2010), and additional support for state and local governments during budget shortfalls.
- Federal grants to state and local governments peaked again from 2020-2023 following the COVID-19 pandemic due to the passage of the American Rescue Plan Act (2021), the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (2021), and other COVID-19 response efforts.
- The majority of these grants go to individuals, although they are awarded by states. Grants to individuals have surpassed grants to states every year since 1990. These grants totaled $679.4 billion in 2023,which was 76.2% of the total federal grants for that year (using 2017 constant dollars).
- Grant-in-aid to state and local governments as a percentage of federal outlays reached a peak of 19% in 2022. This is up from 9.2% in 1940, before dropping to an all-time low of 0.9% in 1945.
- Federal grants to state and local governments were 7.0% of federal outlays in 2023, 12 percentage points lower than the previous year.
- The record for grant-in-aid to state and local governments as a percentage of federal gross domestic product was 2021 at 5.4%.
- The total number of federal grant-in-aid programs increased between 1902 and 2018 to a peak of 1,274 programs in 2018. In 1960 there were 132 programs.
- Starting in 1940 is ideal for tracking this data because it marks the point when federal revenue and spending first equaled and then exceeded state and local revenue and spending.[3]
Federal grant amounts to state and local governments from 1940 through 2023
The following charts show how much money the federal government provided to state and local governments in grants from 1940 through 2023. The first chart shows these amounts in nominal dollars not adjusted for inflation. The second chart shows these amounts according to constant 2017 dollar values, which means it adjusts for inflation by using the dollar value from the same year (2017) across the entire chart.
Grant-in-aid to individuals from 1940 through 2023
Federal grants to state and local governments fund programs that directly benefit individuals, such as education, healthcare, housing, and public infrastructure. While these grants are not awarded directly to individuals, they are designed to support programs and infrastructure that serve the public.
The following charts shows the percentage of total grant-in-aid to state and local governments that was made up by grant-in-aid provided to individuals from 1940 through 2023.
Data on total grant amounts and totals to individuals
Grant-in-aid to state and local governments as a percentage of federal outlays between 1940 and 2023
The following charts show the federal grant-in-aid to state and local governments as a percentage of federal outlays between 1940 and 2023. Grant-in-aid as a percentage of federal outlays has generally increased from since 1940.
Grant-in-aid to state and local governments as a percentage of federal gross domestic product between 1940 and 2023
The following charts show the federal grant-in-aid to state and local governments as a percentage of federal gross domestic product between 1940 and 2023. Grant-in-aid as a percentage of federal gross domestic product has increased from 0.9% in 1940 to 4.0% in 2023.
Total number of federal grant programs between 1902 and 2018
The following charts show the total number of federal grant programs for state and local governments in select years between 1902 and 2018. There was a total of 1,274 federal grant-in-aid programs in 2018.
Federal information collection requests
An information collection is a request to agencies for information that can include forms, reports, surveys, recordkeeping requirements, or public disclosures. The framework for information collection was authorized by the Paperwork Reduction Act (PRA) of 1980, which established policies to minimize the burden on individuals, private entities, and local governments associated with information collection requests from federal government agencies.[4][5]
Total number of federal information collections from state and local government
The following charts show the total number of federal information collections from state and local governments, including pending requests.
Footnotes
- ↑ The Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs, accessed February 17, 2022
- ↑ Office of Management and Budget, "A Budget for America's Future: Analytical Perspectives," 2021
- ↑ Tax Foundation, "A Short History of Government Taxing and Spending in the United States," February 19, 2014
- ↑ The Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs, "FAQs," accessed February 18, 2022
- ↑ U.S. Office of Personnel Management, "Paperwork Reduction Act (PRA) Guide," April 27, 2011
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